Loading...

Choices and Constraints

Gender Differences in the Employment Expectations of Final Year Undergraduates in a University in Central China

by Jian Zhu (Author)
©2014 Monographs XIV, 238 Pages

Summary

This book seeks to investigate gender differences in final year undergraduates’ employment expectations of their starting jobs, including salary, occupational and working region expectations, and to identify factors that have contributed to gender differences in these expectations. It employs an on-site self-completion questionnaire survey and a follow-up semi-structured interview carried out in a university in Central China. The study adopts the conceptual perspective of ‘choice and constraint’, which means that male and female final year undergraduates are able to make their own choices towards employment expectations; however, their choices of employment expectations are limited by a number of constraints. Empirical studies find that there are gender differences in employment expectations. This study further reveals the influence of gendered economic roles, experienced or perceived sex discrimination in China’s graduate labour market job preferences and parents’ expectations on those gender differences in employment expectations.

Table Of Contents

  • Cover
  • Title
  • Copyright
  • About the author
  • About the book
  • This eBook can be cited
  • Contents
  • List of Figures
  • List of Tables
  • List of Abbreviations
  • Chapter One: Introduction
  • 1.1 Introduction
  • 1.2 Statement of the problem
  • 1.3 Research questions
  • 1.4 Justification of key terms
  • 1.5 Structure of the book
  • Chapter Two: Background of the Study
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Background of the study
  • 2.2.1 Gender and China’s higher education system
  • 2.2.2 The evolution of China’s employment policy for university graduates
  • 2.2.3 China’s efforts to improve gender inequality
  • 2.2.4 Gender differences in China’s urban labour market
  • 2.2.4.1 Gender differences in labour force participation
  • 2.2.4.2 Gender earnings gap
  • 2.2.4.3 Occupational segregation by gender
  • 2.2.4.4 Gender differences in China’s graduate Labour market
  • 2.2.5 Motherhood penalty and childcare in China
  • 2.2.5.1 Motherhood penalty
  • 2.2.5.2 Childcare
  • 2.2.6 Gender ideology in China
  • 2.2.6.1 Traditional view - Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism
  • 2.2.6.2 Modern view - Marxism, Maoism, Deng’s gender ideas and the equal opportunity model
  • 2.3 Conclusion
  • Chapter Three: Review of the Relevant Literature and Theories
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Explaining gender differences in the labour market
  • 3.2.1 Individualist approaches
  • 3.2.2 Structuralist perspectives
  • 3.2.3 Approaches emphasizing both choice and constraint
  • 3.3 The conceptual framework: choice and constraint
  • 3.3.1 Choice
  • 3.3.2 Constraint
  • 3.4 Conclusion
  • Chapter Four: Research Design and Methodology
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 Research design
  • 4.2.1 Identifying the research design
  • 4.2.2 Specifying the mixed methods sequential explanatory design
  • 4.3 Designing the questionnaire
  • 4.3.1 The framework of the questionnaire
  • 4.3.2 Items and dimensions of the questionnaire
  • 4.3.2.1 Dimension one: Higher education variables
  • 4.3.2.2 Dimension two: Life role orientations
  • 4.3.2.3 Dimension three: Employment expectations
  • 4.3.2.4 Dimension four: Demography
  • 4.4 Formulating the interview schedule
  • 4.5 Sampling the research respondents
  • 4.5.1 The research setting
  • 4.5.2 Sampling for the questionnaire survey
  • 4.5.2.1 Sampling for the pilot
  • 4.5.2.2 Sampling for the main study
  • 4.5.3 Sampling for the semi-structured interview
  • 4.5.3.1 Sampling for the pilot
  • 4.5.3.2 Sampling for the main study
  • 4.6 The pilot and main study
  • 4.6.1 Getting access to the research respondents
  • 4.6.2 The questionnaire survey
  • 4.6.2.1 The pilot
  • Undertaking the pilot
  • Changes after the pilot
  • 4.6.2.2 The main study
  • 4.6.3 The interviews
  • 4.6.3.1 The pilot
  • 4.6.3.2 The main study
  • 4.7 Ethical considerations
  • 4.7.1 Voluntary participation
  • 4.7.2 Informed consent
  • 4.7.3 Anonymity and confidentiality
  • 4.8 Reliability and validity
  • 4.9 Data analysis
  • 4.9.1 Data reduction
  • 4.9.2 Data display
  • 4.9.3 Data integration
  • 4.10 Conclusion
  • Chapter Five: Gender Differences in Final Year Undergraduates’ Salary Expectations
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Gender differences in university graduates’ actual salaries
  • 5.3 Gender differences in final year undergraduates’ salary expectations
  • 5.3.1 Gender, programmes and salary expectations
  • 5.3.2 Gender, social background and salary expectations
  • 5.3.2.1 Measurements of family backgrounds
  • Parental education
  • Parental occupation
  • Family income
  • Place of origin
  • 5.3.2.2 Gender differences in final year undergraduates’ salary expectations by family background
  • 5.4 Factors affecting gender differences in final year undergraduates’ salary expectations
  • 5.4.1 The economic roles being played in the family between husband and wife
  • 5.4.1.1 The economic role differences between husband and wife
  • 5.4.1.2 The traditional economic role differences in the family: whether it could be changed?
  • 5.4.2 Experienced or perceived sex discrimination in the labour market
  • 5.4.2.1 Various formats of experienced or perceived sex discrimination
  • 5.4.2.2 Interviewees’ attitudes towards sex discrimination
  • 5.5 Conclusion
  • Chapter Six: Gender Differences in Final Year Undergraduates’ Occupational Expectations
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Gender differences in occupational distribution in China’s urban labour market
  • 6.3 Male and female university graduates’ occupational choices for their first jobs
  • 6.4 Gender differences in final year undergraduates’ occupational expectations
  • 6.4.1 Gender patterns in ‘Education’ sec102"#sec103">6.4.2 Gender patterns in employment in ‘Party Agencies and Social Organizations’ in China
  • 6.5 Factors contributing to gender differences in final year undergraduates’ occupational expectations
  • 6.5.1 Findings from the questionnaire data
  • 6.5.2 Findings from the interview data
  • 6.5.2.1 Same choice - Education -, different reasons
  • 6.5.2.2 Same choice - Party Agencies and Social Organizations -, different reasons
  • 6.6 Conclusion
  • Chapter Seven: Gender Differences in Final Year Undergraduates’ Working Region Expectations
  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Regional disparities and labour force mobility in China
  • 7.2.1 China’s policy responses to regional disparities
  • 7.2.2 Snapshot of regional disparities in contemporary China
  • 7.2.3 Labour force mobility in China
  • 7.3 Gender differences in final year undergraduates’ working region expectations
  • 7.3.1 Working region choices for university graduates
  • 7.3.2 Gender differences in final year undergraduates’ working region expectations in the study
  • 7.4 Factors affecting gender differences in final year undergraduates’ working region expectations
  • 7.4.1 The gendered orientations
  • 7.4.2 The impact of parents’ expectations
  • 7.5 Conclusion
  • Chapter Eight: Discussion and Conclusion
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Summary and discussion of the findings
  • 8.2.1 Summary of the findings
  • 8.2.2 Discussion of the findings
  • 8.2.2.1 Different economic roles being played in the family between the genders
  • 8.2.2.2 Sex discrimination in China’s labour market
  • 8.2.2.3 Various job preferences between men and women
  • 8.2.2.4 The impact of parents’ expectations on their children’s working region expectations
  • 8.3 Implications
  • 8.3.1 Legal change
  • 8.3.2 Policy change
  • 8.3.3 Cultural change
  • 8.3.4 Change within the education system
  • 8.4 Limitations of the study
  • 8.5 Directions for further research
  • 8.6 Conclusion
  • References
  • Appendix A: Consent Form for Interview (English)
  • 1. Title of the Research Project
  • 2. Details of the Project
  • 3. Correspondence Details
  • 4. Confidentiality
  • 5. Anonymity
  • 6. Consent
  • Appendix B Consent Form for Interview (Chinese)
  • Index

← vi | vii → List of Figures

Figure 2.1

Labour Force Participation Rate in China by Gender, 1980–2008

Figure 4.1

Sequential Explanatory Design

Figure 4.2

The Research Design of the Study

Figure 4.3

The Framework of the Questionnaire

Figure 4.4

Initial Thematic Map

Figure 4.5

Developed Thematic Map

Figure 4.6

Final Thematic Map

Figure 5.1

Structure of Social Class in Contemporary China

Figure 6.1

The Proportion of Female Full-time Teachers in China’s Education System, 2004–2008

Figure 7.1

University Graduates’ Working Region Choices, 2008← vii | viii →

← viii | ix → List of Tables

Table 2.1

Enrolment of Undergraduates in China’s HEIs by Gender, 1950–2008

Table 2.2

Employment Composition of Urban China by Sector and Gender, 1997 and 2008

Table 2.3

Kindergartens in China, 1998–2008

Table 4.1

Sampling for the Questionnaire Survey

Table 4.2

Interviewees by Gender and Programme

Table 4.3

Respondents for the Pilot of the Questionnaire Survey

Table 4.4

Respondents for the Main Study of the Questionnaire Survey

Table 4.5

Potential Threats to the Validity of Sequential Designs in Mixed Methods Research

Table 4.6

Stages of Mixed Methods Data Analysis Process

Table 4.7

Frequency Distribution of Final Year Undergraduates’ Salary Expectations

Table 4.8

Cross Tabulation of Final Year Undergraduates’ Working Region Expectations by Gender

Table 4.9

Coding of the Thematic Analysis in the Study

Table 5.1

Gender Differences in Actual Salaries for University Graduates, 2008

Table 5.2

Final Year Undergraduates’ Average Salary Expectations by Programme and Gender 107–108

Table 5.3

Final Year Undergraduates’ Average Salary Expectations by Parents’ Education Level and Gender

Table 5.4

Final Year Undergraduates’ Average Salary Expectations by Parents’ Occupation and Gender

← ix | x → Table 5.5

Final Year Undergraduates’ Average Salary Expectations by Family Income and Gender

Table 5.6

Final Year Undergraduates’ Average Salary Expectations by Places of Origin and Gender

Table 6.1

Employment Composition of Urban China by Sector and Gender, 2008 126–127

Table 6.2

The Occupational Choices of University Graduates, 2008

Table 6.3

The Top Five Most and Least Favoured Sectors for New Women College Graduates and Their Salary Levels, 2008

Table 6.4

Final Year Undergraduates’ Occupational Expectations by Gender (in percentage) 130–131

Table 6.5

Distribution of Occupational Expectations – ‘Education’ and ‘Party Agency and Social Organization’ by Gender

Table 6.6

Males’ and Females’ Expectations in ‘Education’, by Level of Education

Table 6.7

Percentage of Female Full-time Teachers in some Countries around the World by Level of Education, 2008

Table 6.8

Women’s Political Empowerment in China at High Level

Table 6.9

Women’s Political Empowerment in China at Basic Level

Table 6.10

Final Year Undergraduates’ Job Preferences by Gender

Table 6.11

Cross Tabulation of Gender and Work-life Orientations

Table 6.12

Cross Tabulation of Gender and Work-life Orientations for Their Spouses

Table 6.13

Cross Tabulation of Gender and Who Has the Main Responsibility for Looking after the Children 140–141

Table 7.1

Division of Population by Urban and Rural Residents, 2008

Table 7.2

Regional GDP and Per Capita GDP, 2008

Table 7.3

Regional Foreign Direct Investment, 2008

Table 7.4

Per Capita Annual Income of Urban Households by Region, 2008

Details

Pages
XIV, 238
Year
2014
ISBN (PDF)
9783035305746
ISBN (ePUB)
9783035399325
ISBN (MOBI)
9783035399318
ISBN (Softcover)
9783034308649
DOI
10.3726/978-3-0353-0574-6
Language
English
Publication date
2014 (February)
Keywords
salary economic roles sex discrimination
Published
Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Wien, 2014. 238 pp., 10 b/w ill., 39 tables

Biographical notes

Jian Zhu (Author)

Jian Zhu is a lecturer in the K. P. Tin Institute of Educational Science, Zhejiang Normal University, China. He earned his PhD in Education from the Moray House School of Education, The University of Edinburgh, UK in 2011. Dr Zhu has published over twenty journal articles and international conference papers in the field of gender issues in China’s higher education and beyond, including comparative higher education. His current research interests include gender issues in China’s higher education and comparative education, with particular reference to inclusivity. He is a principal investigator of the project entitled ‘The Gender Characteristics of Top-level Leaders in China’s «985 Project» Universities’, which is funded by the Ministry of Education, the People’s Republic of China.

Previous

Title: Choices and Constraints
book preview page numper 1
book preview page numper 2
book preview page numper 3
book preview page numper 4
book preview page numper 5
book preview page numper 6
book preview page numper 7
book preview page numper 8
book preview page numper 9
book preview page numper 10
book preview page numper 11
book preview page numper 12
book preview page numper 13
book preview page numper 14
book preview page numper 15
book preview page numper 16
book preview page numper 17
book preview page numper 18
book preview page numper 19
book preview page numper 20
book preview page numper 21
book preview page numper 22
book preview page numper 23
book preview page numper 24
book preview page numper 25
book preview page numper 26
book preview page numper 27
book preview page numper 28
book preview page numper 29
book preview page numper 30
book preview page numper 31
book preview page numper 32
book preview page numper 33
book preview page numper 34
book preview page numper 35
book preview page numper 36
book preview page numper 37
book preview page numper 38
book preview page numper 39
book preview page numper 40
254 pages