Examining Terrorism, Extremism and Radicalization Through a Peace Communication Perspective

Foreword

Jonathan Matusitz

It is my honor to introduce the edited book entitled Examining Terrorism, Extremism and Radicalization Through a Peace Communication Perspective to the readers. I have known Dr. Flora Khoo, the Editor, since the spring of 2018 when she selected me to be the external reader for her award-winning doctoral dissertation, which she defended successfully the following semester at Regent University in Virginia. This book encompasses 10 chapters and offers a fresh perspective on peace journalism research by expanding the applicability of Galtung’s peace theory to terrorism, extremism, and radicalization, unlike traditional approaches that investigate matters mostly related to warfare. I highly recommend that scholars and practitioners alike use this edited volume in their respective classrooms and professional venues for the wide diversity of case studies spanning four different continents. Students studying political rhetoric, communication and conflict, global terrorism, journalism, media and peace studies will especially benefit from the rich array of theories addressed by this diverse international research. Obviously, I cannot cover all 10 chapters in this foreword, but I would like to focus on a few that speak to me directly.

To begin, the terrorist incidents in Europe described in Chapter 3, are used as case studies to highlight journalists’ visual coverage of those two events. As such, the analysis of photographs in the news making process on the Paris and Orlando attacks (in 2015 and 2016, respectively) can help ←vii | viii→readers understand how peace journalism is framed and how modern society could move forward. Chapter 5, “Jihadist Recruitment through Popular Media,” is an interesting read as youths might join the ranks of terrorist groups after being mesmerized and drawn in through popular entertainment media like television series.

Introduction

Flora Khoo

The year 2020 saw the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. It changed the way news was reported. The pandemic compelled us to look for new models to deliver news both editorially and commercially. Journalists developed new methods to conduct distance reporting to tell stories including conflict situations in a safe way.

The beginning of the paradigm shift of the traditional media approach on reporting conflict situations, however, started much earlier. Since the advent of the internet and the advancement of technology and digitization, the traditional journalism model embraced multiple platforms such as digital media, social media, entertainment media and alternate media. Newman (2011) refers to this as the symbiosis between the various media platforms.

Peace journalism isn’t a new concept. Galtung and Ruge first considered the concept of peace journalism as far back as 1965 when they examined what makes foreign news newsworthy. Several scholars have developed and extended Galtung’s concept further. Peace journalism as an approach or attitude that frames a conflict event creatively, giving solutions the upper hand is gaining acceptance (Aslam, 2011; Galtung, 1986).

Additionally, peace journalism isn’t limited to just news media. It is an approach that can be extended to other forms of media such photojournalism, social media, entertainment media and community programs (Aslam, 2011, 2016), Peace journalism principles could also be applied to a wide range of issues such as religion (Anderson, 2015), immigration (Lynch, 2015; Youngblood, 2017), gender (Tivona, 2011), indigenous people (Chow-White & McMahon, 2011) and human rights (Shaw, 2011). Aslam (2016) draws attention to Veritsky’s (2014) call to broaden journalism’s model in order to pave the way for journalists to uncover truth and discover new ways for open dialogue and discussions. This expanded paradigm offers journalists new platforms in storytelling.

This edited book expands the applicability of peace journalism research beyond war to cover terrorism and radicalization, an issue that has not yet been touched by peace journalism scholars. The book offers several case studies from different countries on diverse events of terrorism, extremism and radicalization. Each chapter inter-relates peace journalism/communication and terrorism, extremism or radicalization. This includes far-right extremism, religious terrorism and left-wing radicalization.

The first four chapters of this edited book operationalized the peace journalism model as a tool for content analysis. This includes examining the role of various media platforms such as news stories, news photos and entertainment media in: (1) Global terror events (Kenya Westgate mall attack, and Paris and Orlando attacks), (2) alt-history Amazon TV series (Man in the High Castle) and (3) peace and war studies in journal publications.

Terrorism has changed over time and so have the terrorists, their motives and the cause of terrorism (Laqueur, 2003). Organized terror groups such as ISIS may have lost territorially, but remain a viable threat. According to the UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres (2020), ISIS is trying to make a comeback in Iraq and Syria. Other extremist movements such as Al-Qaeda and its regional affiliates, neo-Nazis, White supremacists and radical movements seek to advance their objectives. U.S. intelligence experts warned that domestic extremists emboldened by the Capitol Hill riot and conspiracy theories on the COVID-19 pandemic and alleged fraudulent 2020 election may plan more attacks. As such, there is a strong need to counter the spread of terror and violent narratives through holistic approaches. From a policy perspective, it is imperative to understand the factors that lead to violent extremism and radicalization.

Taking into consideration Galtung’s (2004) peace and security approach, Chapters 5–10 expand peace journalism discourse by analyzing several religious extremist groups, and violent, radical movements, as well as suggest a multi-faceted approach of how policymakers, educators, media and the local community could promote a peace approach to counter extremist narratives both online and offline.

Terrorism and violence by radical, extremist groups or individuals is a complex phenomenon. While there is no universal definition for terrorism, there is a profound distinction in the ideologies and methods of these groups or lone wolf actors. Using various theories, chapter authors: (1) Investigate the recruitment and radicalization strategies of terrorist groups (ISIS and its affiliates) and individuals (Westminster attack) including its depiction in propaganda magazines (Voice of Hind), and popular TV drama series (Black Crows), (2) examine the role of culture in the Christian extremist, anti-abortionist group (Army of God), and the (3) use of violence by left-wing radical movement (Antifa).

Story telling is a powerful form of counterterrorism propaganda to challenge extremist messages online/offline (Black Crow) as well as to amplify marginalized voices (Man in the High Castle). Chapter 6 in the Entertainment Media section analyzes a series of web-based short films/documentaries in the Kony 2012 campaign and its efforts to advocate against the Lord’s Resistance Army’s acts of extreme violence on children.

Additionally, each of the 10 chapters offers (1) background information outlining the nature of conflict, terror event or terror organization, (2) a brief typology and psychology of extremism to understand what are the trigger points and motivations for violence, as well as (3) a series of 3–5 discussion questions as an avenue for conversation. We hope to engage the reader in a dialogue in academic, policy making and journalistic contexts that considers possible non-violent responses to conflict and terrorism for all stakeholders as well as implications and applications in a global context.

Flora Khoo, Ph.D.

1. The Portrayal of Peace and War Journalism in the Kenya Westgate Attack

Priscilla Burr

“One key to the understanding of terrorism is the element of surprise, unpredictability” (Galtung, 1987, p. 2). On September 21, 2013, Kenya confronted their deadliest terrorist attack since the bombing of the American Embassy in Nairobi in 1998. The attack on Westgate, a luxurious mall in Nairobi, wounded over 200 and claimed the lives of 67 people¹ and more than 18 foreigners were among those killed, including the renowned Ghanaian poet, Kofi Awoonor (Okari, 2014). Al-Shabaab, a Somali-based terrorist group, linked to Al-Qaeda,² confirmed the responsibility for the attack on Twitter. The terrorist group entered two sections of the shopping mall, mostly singling out non-Muslims, as well as shooting aimlessly. The Kenyan security forces entered the infrastructure the day of the attack, yet failed to secure the building, leading to a four-day siege and confusion on the number of attackers (Anderson & McKnight, 2014). It was later revealed that four gunmen, all of Somali origin, led the attacks (Williams, 2014). In the midst of tragedy, a nation often divided by ethnicity came together to pick up the pieces shattered by Al-Shabaab. Two years later, in July of 2015, the Westgate shopping center was reopened to demonstrate a nation that would stand united and would not be hindered by terrorist attacks and threats.

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the use of peace and war journalism techniques by the Daily Nation and The New York Times in the Westgate attack and further compare it to the coverage of both newspapers in the attacks by Al-Qaeda on the Twin Towers and Pentagon on September 11, 2001 (9/11) in the United States. The 9/11 attacks can be noted as a defining moment, as a world power was seen as vulnerable and sabotaged by a secret attack (Tehranian, 2002). The aim is to identify the presence of peace journalism tactics in the country of Kenya when confronted by terrorist attacks. The research explores a month of newspaper coverage, starting with the first day of the attack, on Westgate and the attacks of 9/11. A total count of 173 articles were examined for this study from both the Kenyan and American newspapers. The one-month coverage is significant to see if peace journalism tactics were used to enhance optimism during one of the darkest times for the countries of Kenya and the United States.

To summarize, this study’s objective is to analyze the two terrorist attacks from leading newspapers in each country in order to see the comparisons and similarities of the use or lack thereof of peace and war journalism. In terms of researching this topic, there are several questions to answer. How did a major Kenyan news outlet cover the events of Westgate compared to a major U.S. outlet? Did Kenyan or U.S. outlets attempt to promote unity in relation to the siege? How did Kenya’s coverage compare to that of the United States during the 9/11 attacks? The theoretical framework of this study is based on peace and war journalism. The method used for analyzing the selected news articles surrounded Johan Galtung’s Peace Journalism model, which includes the distinction and comparison of peace and war journalism.