Frontier Governance In Imperial China

1.1

The four decades from 1949 to 1989 saw the emergence of historical studies of China’s southwest Borderland, and the production of the earliest research output. Although there had been previous studies on the topic, they were small in number and had little connection to one another. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, national reconstruction started from scratch. Thanks in part to large-scale surveys of ethnic minorities, the history of the southwest Borderland became a relatively freestanding research field, and has received growing attention.

A major achievement in this period was the comprehensive inquiry into the history and condition of ethnic minorities on the southwest Borderland. The central government sent several delegations to visit ethnic minorities at the Borderland from 1950 to 1952 and conducted a large-scale survey of ethnic groups nationwide starting in 1953, especially those in provinces and autonomous regions at the Borderland. The results are mainly reflected in five book series compiled by the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, namely Languages of Ethnic Minorities, A Brief History of Ethnic Minorities, Social History Survey Data of Ethnic Minorities, A Brief Introduction to Autonomous Regions and the comprehensive monograph Ethnic Minorities in China.

Focusing on the history of ethnic groups in the southwestern Borderland, more in-depth studies have been conducted during this period, and many important results have been achieved, especially on the genesis, population and important activities of ethnic minorities in southwest China. In general, the following issues are covered.

The first is the origins of ethnic minorities in southwest China. Such ethnic groups as Tibetan, Yi, Bai, Miao, Yao, Zhuang, Dai and Buyei are the focus of the study for their great historical influence and complexity as well as comparatively rich records. Relevant studies typically cover different theories about the origin of these groups, including native origin, external origin, mixed origin and other theories. Since researchers assume that the ancestors of the existing ethnic minorities can be traced back to different historical periods and their development process be discovered, they extend their exploration to earlier periods. The second is the study of important historical people like Qiang, Baiyue and Southwestern-barbarian. Emphasis is laid on their composition, distribution, continuity and related activities. Meanwhile, their complex internal relationships, like those between Di and Qiang, Baiyue and Baipu, Luoyue and Ouyue, and western barbarians and southern barbarians, have also received considerable attention from scholars. The third is the study of ancient states and regional authorities, including Ba, Shu, Yelang, Dian, Nanyue, Tubo Kingdom, Nanzhao and Dali Kingdom. Their ethnicity, origin and development, social institutions, economic life, political system, relationship with the Zhongyuan (the Central Plains) dynasty, historical activities and decline are of interest to researchers.

The relationship among different ethnic groups in ancient times has been a research focus since the early 1980s. Many of these studies have been on China’s policies throughout its imperial history towards ethnic minorities in the southwest Borderland. In their assessments of these policies, researchers are generally agreed on the following points: the Qin and Han dynasties handled these issues quite adequately, during the Three Kingdoms period, the Kingdom of Shu was the most successful and the Kingdom of Wu the least, policies in the Jin dynasty were regressive relative to those in Shu-Han, and while policies during early Tang were largely commendable, the same cannot be said of those in late Tang. There are mainly two views on the policies of the Song dynasty towards the Dali Kingdom. According to one, the Song court recognized the head of the Dali Kingdom as its ruler and allowed the kingdom to continue economic trade and cultural exchanges with the Yunnan region. On the other view, the Song court treated the Dali Kingdom as a vassal state, and this policy had a serious adverse impact on the relationship between them. Most researchers have a favorable opinion on the policies towards the southwest Borderland of the Yuan dynasty.

The discussion focused on the Tuguan System or the Native Civilian Commanders System, the Tusi system or the Native Chieftain System, and the process of gaitu guiliu (replacing the chieftain system with direct rule by the Qing court). Earlier studies emphasized the contents, duration, causes, and historical status of the Tuguan System and the Tusi system, while later studies highlighted the implementation of the Tuguan System and the Tusi system in different provinces, autonomous regions, and ethnic groups, as well as causes, process and assessment of gaitu guiliu. There are generally two views on the rationale behind the Tuguan System and the Tusi system. One is that the Tusi system is based on the feudal economy because the imperial ruler wishes to use it to showcase the prosperity of their country; according to the other, the Tusi system is built on a different economic foundation than the rest of the country and is used by the imperial ruler to strengthen control over border areas. On the time of its establishment, one view holds that it first emerged in Yuan Dynasty and reached institutional maturity in late Ming and early Qing, while the other holds that its origin can be traced back much further, to the Jimi System that had long been in existence and of which it is essentially an extension.

The most important achievement of the study of borderland history is the section of southwest Borderland in The Historical Atlas of China edited by Tan Qixiang in the 1970s. The Historical Atlas of China was completed through the joint efforts of many scholars under the direct leadership of the central government. The research on the southwest Borderland was undertaken by Fang Guoyu, You Zhong, Zhu Huirong, and other scholars from Yunnan University. The Historical Atlas of China shows not only the territory of China in China’s imperial history from Qin to Qing but also the jurisdiction of local governments like Nanzhao, Dali, and so on, covering comprehensive information of place names, ancient passages, important towns, and ethnic distribution.

1.2

The first decade after the first 40 years of this research was from 1990 to 1999. In this period, the studies on the history of southwest Borderland were freed from the influence of the “Left” opportunism from 1950s to the early 1970s and some new fields, such as borderland history and geography, were explored, showing relative prosperity. Much discussed topics are as follows.

The changes of the southwest territory and government administration throughout the country’s history. You Zhong published Changes of Southwest Borderland of China and Local History of Yunnan. Based on the text on Yunnan during Qing dynasty in The Historical Atlas of China, the former elaborates on the changes of southwest Borderland in Qing dynasty; while the latter explores the government administration in Yunnan from Han dynasty to Qing dynasty. On the Study of Southwest China by Xu Jianxin and History, Culture and Geography of Yunnan by Li Shou et al., are also about the territory and government administration of Yunnan. The General History of Zhuang People edited by Zhang Shengzhen, The History of Guangxi by Qin Yanhuan, and The General History of Guangxi by Zhong Wendian narrate the changes of territory and government administration of Guangxi in history. The History of Nanyue by Zhang Rongfang et al. discusses the territory and government administration of the ancient Chinese Kingdom Nanyue. Researchers focused mainly on the government administration and the evolution of territories. Such topics as the management and development of the Borderland, the political, economic, and cultural relations between the inland area and the Borderland, within the Borderland areas, and between the Borderland areas and bordering countries are less discussed.

Governance of southwest Borderland throughout Chinese history. Ma Dazheng discusses the border policies and governance of the central government in different historical periods and analyzes the evolution of traditional border governance ideas and border management institutions in Research on Borderland Policy in Ancient China. Ma Ruheng et al. completed Borderland Policy in Qing Dynasty. Zheng Shan edited Borderland Defense History of China to study borderland defense and management in China’s imperial history. Cross-sectional research in this period included Borderland Policy and Official in Eastern and Western Han Dynasties by Li Dalong and Study of Jimi Fuzhou in Tang Dynasty by Liu Tong. Governance of southwest Borderland in imperial China is discussed in these works of different lengths. In this period, more attention is paid to Borderland governance and policies towards ethnic minorities in ancient dynasties while the Borderland governance theories and policies of longer term as well as border development and social governance thoughts are less discussed.

As a major achievement in this period, the relationship between southwest Borderland and neighboring regions is thoroughly discussed, showing that Chinese researchers had overcome the taboo against discussing historical disputes between China and neighboring countries. It is the consensus of Chinese scholars that Nanzhao is not established by the Tai people, yet foreign researchers still hold different opinions. In Research on the Origin of the Tai People, Chen Lüfan expounds the views of Chinese scholars. Huang Huikun, He Shengda, and other scholars also wrote articles on the topic. In History of Myanmar and A Cultural of Southeast Asia by He Shengda, History of Laos by Shen Xu, and History of Southeast Asia by Wang Mintong, they explore the historical relationship between China, especially Yunnan region, with the countries on the Indo-China Peninsula.

Great progress was made in the study of modern history of southwest border. Such scholars as Niu Zhongxun, Zhang Zhenluan, Lu Yiran, Yu Shengwu, Zhang Zhirong, Xie Benshu, Qin Heping, and so on, wrote articles on the historical evolution of the border between China and Myanmar, border conflicts between the two countries and related negotiations, and other issues. In Local History of Yunnan, You Zhong describes the border conflicts between China and Vietnam and changes of the border in Qing Dynasty. The border issues between China and Vietnam are closely related to the Sino-French War. Liu Qing, Huang Zhennan, Luo Suzhen and others wrote papers to elaborate on the countermeasures of the Qing government during the Sino-French war, the influence of the Sino-French War on the border between China and Vietnam, and so on. You Zhong and Li Guoqiang looked into the formation of the border between China and Laos.

The period also witnessed remarkable progress in the study of the development history of southwest Borderland. If the changes of territory are to a greater extent related to the political, institutional and administrative division history and demonstrate mainly political relations, the development of Borderland is more closely related to resources, economy and population, reflecting the relationship between man and nature. The topic, which was rarely discussed before the 1980s, has gradually attracted the attention of researchers, and that interest has continued to grow. Major issues discussed in the period include governance of southwest Borderland by China’s imperial history, measures for management of the Borderland, development of economic sectors like agriculture, mining and metallurgy, transportation, and animal husbandry, and contributions of different ethnic groups to the development of Borderland. Related works cover Modern Economic History of Yunnan by Li Gui, Economic Development History of Ethnic Groups in Yunnan by Yang Yucai, Southern Silk Road and Economic Development and Ecological Changes of Southwest China in History by Lan Yong, Development History of Southwest Borderland in China by Fang Tie et al., External Transportation History of Yunnan by Lu Ren, Science and Technology History of Yunnan by Xia Guangfu et al., History of Nanyue by Zhang Rongfang et al., Research on Modern Market Towns in Guangxi by Zhong Wendian, Agricultural Geography of Guangdong and Guangxi in Qing Dynasty by Zhou Hongwei, Research on Borderland Development in Qing Dynasty by Ma Ruheng, and so on. The following topics should be further studied: recognition and development of natural resources in southwest Borderland, diversity of resources for development and relevant local knowledge, characteristics and laws of economic development in southwest Borderland, role of mining and metallurgy as well as transportation in overall economic development, relationship between economic development and the formation and consolidation of southwest territory, relationship between different types of economy and cultural diversity, and so on.

Frequently discussed topics also include the following.

Ethnic policies at the Borderland in imperial China. Tuguan System, Tusi system, and the process of gaitu guiliu still drew much attention, yet researchers went beyond general discussions on their content, significance, and impact. In addition to comparatively thorough overall study, the tendency to discuss their implementation in different regions in combination with specific problems appeared. There were also papers on the process of gaitu guiliu in Yunnan in modern times. The ethnic policy of Du Wenxiu’s reign is discussed in History of Hui People in Yunnan by Yang Zhaojun and Duwenxiu Uprising by Jing Dexin. As a part of the Borderland governance policy, the discussion over governance of ethnic minorities should be placed in a larger historical background with more influencing factors. However, it had not been noticed in the period. Moreover, the profound influence and cultural form of Tuguan System and Tusi system should be further studied.

Relations among ethnic groups in southwest Borderland. Relations among ethnic groups in southwest China in ancient times, especially between the Han people and ethnic minorities, are elaborated on in A History of Ethnic Groups in Yunnan and Ancient Ethnic Groups in Southwest China (Sequel) by You Zhong and Cultural Influence of the Migration of Ethnic Groups in Yunnan by Cang Ming. The population in different regions of ancient China, including the southwest Borderland, is studied from the perspective of the historical demography in A Simple History of Chinese Migration by Ge Jianxiong et al., and Administrative Division and Demography in the Prime Tang Dynasty by Weng Junxiong. The relations among ethnic groups and patriarch clan system in the history of Guangxi are explored in The Patriarch Clan System of Ethnic Groups in Guangxi by Qian Zongfan et al. The origins of ethnic groups in southwest Borderland are further discussed in Classification of Ethnic Groups in Ancient China by Wang Wenguang. Significant progress was made in the period. In particular, the study of cross-border ethnic groups in the southwest Borderland continued to deepen. Nevertheless, such topics as the development of relations between immigrants and ethnic minorities in southwest China, the factors influencing the pattern of relations among ethnic groups in the region, and relations among ethnic groups of the modern era received relatively little attention.

The research in the period was characterized by the study of cross-border ethnic groups of the southwest in the context of the whole country. Meanwhile, attention was paid to situation of cross-border ethnic groups and the impacts on the reality and new points on the definition of cross-border ethnic groups were also proposed. Influential works include On Tusi system in Qing Dynasty by Li Shiyu, Cross-border Ethnic Groups in China by Jin Chunzi et al., and Cross-border Ethnic Groups in Yunnan by Zhao Tingguang. The relation between Dai people and relevant ethnic groups abroad is explored in On the History of Dai People by Zhu Depu. Since the Jimi System implemented by the Zhongyuan dynasty covered a larger region in and out of the border, it seems that all ethnic groups in the region could be mentioned as “ethnic groups at the Borderland in China’s imperial history.” Cross-border ethnic groups are a modern concept. Therefore, ethnic groups at the Borderland in imperial China, covering the cross-border ethnic groups referred to today, should also be studied in a comprehensive and thorough way.

An important condition for the progress of research was the review and summary of the academic history of the study of southwest Borderland. Many works published in the period, such as Borderland Research of China in the 20th Century and Borderland Policies in China’s Imperial History of China by Ma Dazheng et al., The History of Ethnology in China (Part II) by Wang Jianmin, and related articles, are related to the academic history of the study of southwest Borderland. Nevertheless, studies in this respect should be further expanded in general.

1.3

The years from 2000 to 2013 was the latest period of the research on the history of the southwest Borderland. Notable progress was achieved in both the scope and depth of research and the application of new methods and perspectives.

Great achievement was made in the study of the general history of southwest Borderland. The series A Complete History of China Borders, with Ma Dazheng as the editor in chief, cover several complete histories of different borderland regions of China. Among them, A History of China Administration of Borderland by Ma Dazheng looks into the theory and practice of borderland administration from the Qin and Han dynasties to the Qing dynasty and a certain part of it is about the southwest borderland. A Complete History of China Southwest Borderland, a tome of over one million Chinese characters and edited by Fang Tie, expounds on the evolution of southwest borderland from ancient times to 1840. It covers politics, social economy, ethnic relations|, cultural exchanges, and daily life of the local population in different times. The ideas and policies for administration of southwest borderland in China’s imperial history and other major issues are introduced in eight chapters. The publication of the two works changed the relatively fragmented study and absence of overall discussion in previous research and promoted the examination of borderland history from a national and long-term perspective. It seems that the two works haven’t given full expression to the field, leaving considerable space for further exploration. A Complete History of Yunnan edited by He Yaohua includes the achievements of over ten Yunnan scholars in decades, covering diverse areas of the history of Yunnan at great length. Introduction to Chinese Borderland Studies by Zheng Shan is the first work on the topic. Remarkable progress was made in the study of cross-border ethnic groups.

Sino-Vietnam and Sino-Laos cross-border ethnic groups are thoroughly discussed in Ethnic Groups Relevant to Southeast Asia in South China by Fan Honggui, Sino-Vietnam and Sino-Laos Cross-border Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Relations by Zhou Jianxin and Ethnic Groups in Laos by Huang Xingqiu. Major issues in the history of the Miao people in southwest Borderland and neighboring countries are explored in A Transnational Study of the Miao by Shi Maoming. Different from previous studies, these discussions not only describe cross-border ethnic groups in neighboring countries but also expound on the policies of Vietnam and Laos towards cross-border ethnic groups and even make in-depth investigation into cross-border ethnic groups. A Preliminary Study of the Culture of Cross-border Ethnic Groups in Yunnan by He Shaoying et al. is the first monograph on the systematic study of the culture of cross-border ethnic groups in Yunnan. In From Yunnan to Assam, Origin and Evolution of Ethnic Groups on Indo-China Peninsula, and Ethnohistory of Southeast Asia, He Pin provides new interpretation on the origin of ancient ethnic groups in Yunnan, the Indo-China Peninsula, and Assam region of India and their evolution after systematic study of historical materials at home and abroad. History of Sino-Myanmar Relations by Yu Dingbang is the first work on this topic. The study of the relationship between the prehistoric civilizations of the southwest Borderland of China and the Indo-China Peninsula is deepened in recently published works including Study of Ancient Bronze Culture and Ethnic Groups in Yunnan and Guangxi Regions and Northern Vietnam by Xie Chongan and Bronze Culture in Yunnan and Vietnam by Li Kunsheng et al.

Breakthroughs were made in the study of the history and development of southwest Borderland in the Qing dynasty and modern times. Influential works include Sino-Vietnam Suzerain-Vassal Relationship in Qing Dynasty by Sun Hongnian, Research on the Issue of Sino-Burmese Boundary by Zhu Zhaohua, British Empire and Southwest Borderland of China by Lü Zhaoyi, Drug Problem in Southwest Ethnic Minority Areas and Countermeasures by Qin Heping, The Monsoon Climate and Weather Disasters in Yunnan in Qing Dynasty by Yang Yuda, Land Utilization and Ecological Changes in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau by Yang Weibing, Studies of Miasma and Ecological Change of Yunnan in Qing Dynasty and Famine and Social Changes in Southwest China by Zhou Qiong, Industrial History of Yunnan by Chen Zhengping, On Du Wenxiu Uprising by Lin Quan and A Brief History of Yunnan by Liu Shusheng et al. Border Policy of the Nanjing National Government by Duan Jinsheng is the first work on the topic and a considerable part of the book is related to the southwest Borderland.

Important achievements were also made in the study of the development of southwest Borderland. Development History of Transportation in Guilin by Huang Jiacheng et al. and History of Commodity Economy in Guangxi during the Ming and Qing Dynasties by Wu Xiaofeng make up for the weak links in the study of the development history of Guangxi. The Political Economy of a Borderland: Southwest China by James Lee focuses on the Ming and Qing dynasties, providing detailed information and novel points. The Unbalance of Guangxi Regional Development in Ming and Qing Period by Teng Lanhua is completed on the basis of her doctoral dissertation, putting forward the point that Guangxi regional development in Ming and Qing dynasties is unbalanced. Development of Southwest China and Control of Social Conflicts in History by Li Xiaolong et al. links the development of southwest Borderland and control of social conflicts, providing a new research perspective. New progress was made in historical demography and the study of migration in southwest Borderland. Historical demography in southwest Borderland is elaborated on in A General History of Chinese Population by Lu Yu et al. and History of Population in China by Ge Jianxiong. Works on migration in China’s imperial history include Migration of the Han People to Yunnan in the Ming Dynasty by Lu Ren and History of Migration on the Borderland of Yunnan by Cang Ming.

In the period, Zhang Zhongkui published Replacing the Chieftain System with Direct Rule by the Qing Court and Rebuilding the Miao Borderlands and Lan Wu published From Establishing Tusi system to Turning into Regular Administration: On the Tusi system in Guangxi during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, making thorough and detailed discussion on the Tusi system or “replacing the chieftain system with direct rule by the Qing court.” Influential works on ethnohistory of the Borderland include History and Geography of the Yi Ethnic Minority Region by Guo Shengbo, The Qiang People: A Ethnic Group between the Han People and the Tibetan by Wang Mingke, History, Geography, and Ethnic Groups in Southwest China: A Study Focusing on the Song Dynasty by Liu Fusheng, and Ethnic Development in Yunnan of the Ming Dynasty by Duan Hongyun.

Many other important works were published in the decade. Overview of China’s Borderland History and Geography Studies edited by Li Sheng et al. provides systematic discussion on the study of China’s borderland history and geography from 1989 to 1998 and the length of the part on southwest Borderlands is over 60,000 Chinese characters. History of Ethnic Minority Areas in Southwest China (1st Half) by You Zhong explores the changes of administration areas in the southwest Borderlands from the Pre-Qin Period to the Han and Jin Dynasties. The Legal History of Yunnan by Fang Hui expounds on the legal system and management of Yunnan in China’s imperial history. History of Chinese Ethnic Policy by Gong Yin puts ancient China into four periods and describes the ethnic policy of the central government of each period respectively, covering a large part on southwest Borderlands. History of Sino-French War by Miao Zongling and Looking into Sino-French War by Huang Zhennan are important works for the study of Sino-French War. Ethnosociology of Yunnan in the First Half of the 20th Century by Bai Xingfa is a new work on academic history. Development of Education in Ethnic Areas of Wujiang River Valley by Li Liangping et al. provides detailed information on the study of a previously less discussed topic.

The period witnessed the gradually increasing exchange between Chinese scholars and western scholars. Some works relevant to the history of southwest Borderland were translated into Chinese, like A History of Southeast Asia by British scholar D.G.E.Hall, The Cambridge History of China and The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia with the US scholar John King Fairbank as the editor -in-chief, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia by French scholar George Cœdès, and Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 by the Austrialian scholar Anthony Reid. Meanwhile, works on the study and introduction of the research of western scholars were also published, such as World Politics—Views From China: China’s Foreign Affairs by Niu Jun et al., History of Southwest Borderlands of China in the Eyes of Western Scholars in Modern Times by Lu Ren et al., Study of Western Borderland Theories in the Context of Globalization by Yu Pei et al., and New Historiography of the Contemporary West by Li Xiaobing.