Dis-orienting the Maghreb
Morocco in British and American Travel Writing
Summary
«Dis-orienting the Maghreb offers a valuable contribution to both scholarship on travel literature and postcolonial studies. Rddad’s emphasis on geographical specificity and his focus on the often-neglected travel narratives of Morocco provide a much-needed corrective to the prevailing trends in the field that privilege temporality and continuity. His work not only broadens our understanding of Orientalist discourse but also contributes to the study of travel literature by highlighting the diversity and complexity of Western representations of the Maghreb. His nuanced approach invites readers and scholars alike to reconsider the ways in which we engage with and interpret the rich tradition of travel writing that have shaped our understanding of the world.»
(Ali Behdad, John Charles Hills Chair in Literature, Professor of English and Comparative Literature, and the Director of the Center for Near Eastern Studies at University of California, Los Angeles)
This book rethinks the encounters between Morocco and the West by exploring the ideological and historical foundations of the discursive shifts in Anglo-American travel writing on Morocco.
Four major paradigm shifts are identified that characterize travel writing’s production of knowledge in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, an era which started placing Morocco in the narrative of Western civilization. The national(ist) turn considers the ways in which Philip Durham Trotter’s Our Mission to the Court of Marocco (1880) foregrounds a parochial patriotic rhetoric founded on the notion of the «British priority discourse. » The secular turn examines Frances Macnab’s A Ride in Morocco (1902) to underscore the supremacy of the secular intent of colonialism over the religious and missionary channels in the dissemination of modernism. The transnational turn examines George Edmond Holt’s Morocco the Piquant (1914) in terms of the cultural and ideological transformations of discursive forms in the USA and Morocco in the era of transnationalism. Finally, the imperial turn discusses Edith Wharton’s In Morocco (1920) to reveal the anxieties of a discourse trapped between the advocacy of American nationalism and French colonialism.
Excerpt
Table Of Contents
- Cover
- Title
- Copyright
- About the author
- About the book
- This eBook can be cited
- Contents
- Ali Behdad Foreword
- Acknowledgments
- Introduction
- Chapter 1 Travel Studies, Postcolonialism, and the Moroccan Historical Context
- Chapter 2 The National(ist) Rhetoric in British Travel Writing on Morocco
- Chapter 3 Signs of Native Resistance, Gender, and the Secular in British Travel Writing on Morocco
- Chapter 4 Tangier (Un)bound: The Interplay between the National Color and the International(ist) Rhetoric
- Chapter 5 The Interplay between the Imperial and the National(ist) Rhetoric in Edith Wharton’s In Morocco
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
ALI BEHDAD
Foreword
In his satirical work Dictionnaire des idées reçues, Gustave Flaubert wittily defined an Orientalist as “a man who has traveled a lot,”1 highlighting the essential connection between Orientalism and travel literature about the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Though Flaubert mocked this stereotypical figure, his portrayal accurately reflects the close relationship between Orientalism and travel writing. The origins of Orientalism are deeply rooted in the extensive travelogues written by European explorers of the MENA region. While Europe’s geopolitical interest in the region dates back to the Crusades in the eleventh century, it was during the late seventeenth century that European travelers began producing a significant body of literature detailing MENA’s geography, people, languages, and cultures. This body of work laid the foundation for modern Orientalism, both as an academic field and as a discourse of power. Understanding and writing about MENA necessitated firsthand exploration, making travel literature indispensable to the development of Orientalist thought. By the 1870s, when Flaubert penned his satirical entry, Orientalist discourse had become integral to every account of MENA societies and cultures. Nineteenth-century European travelers relied heavily on the works of their predecessors and established Orientalists to depict the so-called Orient. This created a symbiotic relationship between Orientalism and travel writing about MENA, which rendered the region both epistemologically visible and exotic. European, and later American, travelogues constructed MENA as a site of exoticism, contributing to the formation of Euro-imperialist subjectivity.
In his groundbreaking work Orientalism (1978), Edward Said brought the political implications of Europe’s fascination with MENA to the forefront of academic discourse. Said’s notion of “Orientalism” entails three key ideas: the work of those who teach and write about the Middle East, a style of thought characterized by a hierarchical relationship between the Occident and the Orient, and the institutional framework for dealing with the Orient. While the first two definitions span a broad spectrum of writers from Aeschylus to Victor Hugo, the third specifically addresses the modern Orientalist discourse, especially travel literature, that emerged in Europe in the late eighteenth century, and the ways in which it was closely tied to colonial interests in the MENA region. Drawing on Michel Foucault’s critique of knowledge and power dynamics, as well as Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony, Said argued that Orientalist representations were not objective or neutral. Instead, they were deeply entwined with the West’s colonial domination over MENA. He posited that Orientalism was a system that embedded geopolitical awareness into various texts, many of them travelogues, and served a deliberate intention to understand, control, and manipulate a distinctly different world. This relationship of power was integral to Europe’s cultural and material self-fashioning, with the MENA region framed by the forces of Western learning, consciousness, and empire. Said’s analysis of Orientalism highlighted its role as a discourse of power, but it also sparked renewed interest in the genre of travel literature. Postcolonial scholars thus began to demonstrate how this genre, particularly European travelogues to MENA, played a crucial role in shaping Orientalist discourse. By documenting the geography, people, languages, and cultures of the region, they argued, travel writers provided the raw material for Orientalist scholarship and its subsequent influence on Western perceptions.
However, Said’s theory of Orientalism was also critiqued by these scholars for its tendency to present a monolithic view of the discourse, emphasizing its ideological coherence and power dynamics while overlooking the diversity and nuances within Orientalist representations. This critique of Said’s notion of Orientalism is particularly relevant to travel literature, which, when examined closely, reveals a complex and heterogeneous network of representations that evolved over time and varied according to national, geographical, and ideological contexts. Indeed, travel narratives about the MENA region, while often reinforcing Euro-imperialist viewpoints, also exhibit a variety of perspectives and rhetorical techniques. While European travelogues reflect racial prejudice and often straightforward validations of imperial dominance, they must be understood within their specific historical and geopolitical contexts, acknowledging the cultural assumptions and political interests that shaped them. European travel writing about MENA, in other words, does not constitute a single, unified discourse. Rather, it is a multifaceted web of representations marked by differences, ambivalence, and heterogeneity. To appreciate this complexity, one must consider the historical periods and specific contexts in which these travel narratives were produced. Such an approach reveals the discursive shifts and varied intentions behind the portrayals of the region and its people, challenging the notion of a singular and monolithic Orientalist perspective.
In light of the fact that travel literature does not constitute a single and unified discourse, Sadik Rddad’s Dis-orienting the Maghreb: Morocco in British and American Travel Literature is a welcome contribution to both scholarship on travel literature and the field of postcolonialism. Rddad’s work, which focuses on representations of Morocco, examines some late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century American and British travel narratives, specifically those written between 1880 and 1920 by four writers: Philip Trotter, Frances Macnab, George Edmond Holt, and Edith Wharton. The choice of this time frame and selection of writers, though seemingly arbitrary, allows Rddad to explore in a focused manner a range of perspectives during a critical period in Moroccan history, different from commonly studied periods such as 1830–1912 or 1830–1944, which correspond to the French conquest of Algiers and the rise of Moroccan nationalism. Rddad’s insightful analysis of these narratives reveals the multiplicity of views and rhetorical strategies employed by these travel writers, highlighting the diversity within Orientalist representations. His work thoughtfully challenges the notion of a homogenous Orientalist discourse by showcasing the distinct and sometimes conflicting portrayals of Morocco and its people. Through detailed examination of these texts, he carefully demonstrates how travel literature can both reinforce and resist colonial ideologies, providing a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between power, knowledge, and representation. Dis-orienting the Maghreb thus enriches our understanding of travel writing and its role in the construction of the Orient, emphasizing the need to recognize the heterogeneity and historical specificities within Orientalist discourse. This approach aligns with the broader goals of postcolonial scholarship, which in the past three decades has aimed to deconstruct monolithic narratives and bring to light the varied and often contradictory voices within colonial and postcolonial contexts.
Sadik Rddad’s Dis-orienting the Maghreb is an important and timely study that brings a fresh perspective to the field of travel literature and postcolonial studies by emphasizing the critical role of geography—both real and imagined—in shaping discursive differences and discontinuities. While history and time are central to his analysis, Rddad skillfully highlights how geographical considerations serve as a foundation for understanding the complex dynamics of Orientalist representation. This geographical focus also allows for a deeper exploration of the particularities and specificities of the Maghreb region, offering a nuanced view that moves beyond the simplistic binaries often employed in postcolonial discourses.
One of the most noteworthy aspects of Rddad’s book is his attention to the specific representation of Morocco in British and American travel writings. By concentrating on the unique ways Morocco was portrayed by the British and American, as opposed to the French, he challenges the overemphasis on the generalized Orient/Occident binary that dominates much of the existing scholarship. As Rddad points out, this binary risks overlooking the diverse strategies of imperial and colonial discourses, which often exploit differences among various “others” to reinforce their narratives. By drawing critical attention to Morocco and the broader Maghreb region, Rddad underscores its significance as a privileged site of Western exploration and conflict, highlighting the complex and often overlooked history of Euro-imperial engagement with this part of the world. Despite the rich history of Western travels to Morocco, many of these accounts have either been forgotten or remain understudied. Rddad shows that these travelogues have been marginalized because they do not fit within the conventional and well-trodden routes of Western travel writing. This scholarly oversight, he rightly contends, has led to a narrow and myopic understanding of Orientalist travel literature, one that has predominantly focused on travels to the Middle East as opposed to North Africa. By bringing Moroccan travel narratives to the forefront, Rddad thus expands the scope of travel criticism and enriches our understanding of the diverse trajectories of Western exploration and representation.
Rddad’s work further demonstrates how Moroccan travel narratives can provide critical insights into the broader practices of Euro-imperialism. By examining texts such as Philip Trotter’s Our Mission to the Court of Marocco, Frances Macnab’s A Ride in Morocco among Believers and Traders, George Edmond Holt’s Morocco the Piquant, and Edith Wharton’s In Morocco, he reveals the complex interplay of power, knowledge, and representation that characterizes these works. These narratives, which span a crucial period in Moroccan history, offer a window into the shifting perceptions and political dynamics of the time as well as the differences within Euro-American interests in the region. Rddad’s meticulous analysis underscores the importance of considering these works within their specific historical and geopolitical contexts, thereby challenging the homogenizing tendencies of traditional scholarship on Orientalism.
In sum, Dis-orienting the Maghreb offers a valuable contribution to both scholarship on travel literature and postcolonial studies. Rddad’s emphasis on geographical specificity and his focus on the often-neglected travel narratives of Morocco provide a much-needed corrective to the prevailing trends in the field that privilege temporality and continuity. His work not only broadens our understanding of Orientalist discourse but also contributes to the study of travel literature by highlighting the diversity and complexity of Western representations of the Maghreb. His nuanced approach invites readers and scholars alike to reconsider the ways in which we engage with and interpret the rich tradition of travel writing that have shaped our understanding of the world.
1 Gustave Flaubert, Dictionnaire des idées reçues (Paris: Editions du Boucher, 2002), p. 70.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my supervisor Professor Taieb Belghazi whose patience, passion, insightful remarks, and belief in my academic abilities made this book possible. He has given me his time and shared generously his wide expertise in the fields of cultural studies, studies in travel writing, and history. His continuous encouragement and help are only matched by his generosity and friendship. I am equally grateful to my adviser Professor Brian Edwards for his tremendous and invaluable contribution to the completion of this work. Scholarly conversations and collaborations with him both in Fez and Evanston inspired me throughout the preparation of this book. Professors Edwards’s and Kate Baldwin’s hospitability made my Fulbright stay in Chicago pleasant and fruitful.
I would also like to sincerely thank Professor Mohamed Ezroura whose minute comments on the intellectual, technical, and linguistic aspects of this book are so insightful and will certainly upgrade it. Special thanks go to my colleague Professor Khalid Bekkaoui. He has always offered to read, discuss, and comment on parts of my work. I am also indebted to Professor M’barek Rouwane for his sincere and indefatigable encouragement and perceptive discussions in the field of travel writing.
Professor Ali Behdad’s insightful comments and great foreword have upgraded the quality of my book.
I would also like to thank all the people who have contributed in one way or another to the completion of this work. Special mention should be made of Professors Abdellatif Khayati, Hamid El Montasser, and Samir Bouzouita, and all my colleagues at the Department of English, Dhar El Mehraz, Fez. My intellectual engagements with them have been very useful to me.
Special gratitude goes to Lahoucine Aammari for his tremendous feedback on the manuscript of this book and his continuous support.
This book has benefited from a Fulbright Joint-Supervision Doctorate Grant by the Moroccan American Commission for Education and Cultural Exchange (MACECE). It allowed me to be affiliated with two prominent centers—the BCICS and Program of African Studies (PAS)—meet eminent scholars such as Kate Baldwin, Katherine Hoffmann, Dilip Gaonkar, and Mercia Hermans, and have access to scholarly books and articles, especially at the Africana and Melville J. Herskovits Libraries. I would like to thank the Fulbright administration both in the United States and Morocco. I would also like to thank Daoud Casewit and James Miller, the former directors of MACECE in Rabat—they have been so helpful and friendly. Thanks go also to Mohamed Chrayah, former deputy executive secretary of MACECE, for his generous time and advice.
Last but not least, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my dear wife Ouafae El Attaoui for her patience, encouragement, and help through the preparation of this book.
Introduction
Orientalism . . . depends for its economy on a “principle of discontinuity” that makes possible the production of a whole series of discursive practices in various epistemological domains. Different modes of orientalist representations neither constitute a “discursive consistence” nor form equal parts of a monolithic system of “internal reproductions,” for they often contradict one another. Difference, ambivalence, and heterogeneity . . . are fundamental attributes of orientalist representations.
—Ali Behdad, Belated Travelers (1994)
Ever since the publication of Edward Said’s seminal and controversial book Orientalism in 1978, travel writing, for long ignored by cultural critics, started gaining more productive recognition as a terrain of cultural production. It became an invaluable locus of the articulation of far-reaching critical and political debates: feminist studies, Marxism, postmodernism, poststructuralism, post(colonialism), deconstruction, and psychoanalysis. It is more problematized as it is crisscrossed with a series of discursive forms, such as “contact zones,” “hetrotopicality,” “imperial frontiers,” spatial practices, and “transculturation,”1 all departing from critiquing what they see as Said’s monolithic, fixed, and monopolizing discursive argument about the West and the rest, but substantially using his framework though with different focuses.
This book examines some late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century American and British travel narratives on Morocco. Chronologically, they span the years 1880–1920. They include Philip Durham Trotter’s Our Mission to the Court of Marocco (1880), Frances Macnab’s A Ride in Morocco among Believers and Traders (1902), George Edmund Holt’s Morocco the Piquant (1914), and Edith Wharton’s In Morocco (1920). The choice of this period might look arbitrary. Many researchers have chosen to study periods such as 1830–1912 and 1830–1944; the former refers to the period spanning the conquest of Algiers and the French protectorate in Morocco, the latter to the conquest of Algiers and the rise of the nationalist movement in Morocco.
Details
- Pages
- XVI, 278
- Publication Year
- 2025
- ISBN (PDF)
- 9781803742861
- ISBN (ePUB)
- 9781803742878
- ISBN (Hardcover)
- 9781803742854
- DOI
- 10.3726/b21111
- Language
- English
- Publication date
- 2025 (February)
- Keywords
- Travel Writing Colonial Discourse Postcolonialism Morocco Britain the United States of America and France
- Published
- Oxford, Berlin, Bruxelles, Chennai, Lausanne, New York, 2025. XVI, 278 pp.
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