Parks in the Balkan Capitals

Acknowledgments

This volume is a project initiated by the Balkan History Association in 2021. It was developed in collaboration with the Institute of Balkan Studies and Centre of Thracology at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in Sofia. A call for papers was created by Ana-Maria Lepăr, a member of the Association. Alexandra Milanova, Assistant Professor and Scientific Coordinator at the Institute, joined the project at an early stage. The Department of Byzantine Philology and Folklore Studies at the Faculty of Philology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, also supported its development.

I would like to thank certain people who supported the project in various ways. It is also worth mentioning those who offered useful advice and suggestions during my visits to Bulgaria and Greece; they contributed significantly to this volume. I am grateful to Roumiana Preshlenova, Director of the Institute of Balkan Studies and Centre of Thracology; Georgios Kouzas (Department of Byzantine Philology and Folklore Studies); Dejana Prnjat and Miroslav Šilić (Academy of Arts, University of Novi Sad); Alina Ostapov (Department of Cultural Heritage under the Ministry of Culture, Chișinău); Georgeta Nazarska (University of Library Studies and Information Technologies, Sofia); Rossitsa Gradeva (Institute of Balkan Studies and Centre of Thracology); and Stergios Tampekis (Agricultural University of Athens).

Mihai Dragnea, March 2026

Figures

Figure 1: A map/diagram of the public greenery in Belgrade in 1909, including parks: (1) Topčider, (2) Kalemegdan, (3) Finansijski, (4) Karadjordjev, (5) Ćirila i Metodija

Figure 2: Topčider Park, postcard from 1920s

Figure 3: The Monument to the Liberators of Belgrade in 1806, erected in 1848, facing a wild-chestnut-tree–lined avenue in Karadjordje Park

Figure 4: The Plan for arranging a part of Kalemegdan Park, named Mali [Little] Kalemegdan, designed in 1898 by architect Dimitrije T. Leko

Figure 5: Diversity of ambiances in Kalemegdan Park, postcard from the late 1920s

Figure 6: Historical photography of the educational complex of Idadia and Islahana (1915–1918), dated 10.08.1917 on the backside

Figure 7: Real and conceptual transformations of the correlation of the city and the park (first and second half of the twentieth century)

Figure 8: Decomposition of the plan of the park. Longitudinal and transversal axials

Figure 9: From left to right: Mirjana Milanović-Volinjec, 1971. Lotus. “In the place where the fountain is today, before its construction there was a swamp, full of beautiful white flowers”; The meadow, evening auditorium, 2019; The plane tree with a double trunk, 2019; Ivan Ivanovski, 2010. People birds. Kneeling and standing position, 2019; The ring of Platanus trees, 2019; Ljubomir Dalchev, 1946. Gotse Delchev, everyday traces, 2019; Kiril Muratovski, 1965–1966. A summer scene, “The Shell”, despite its artificiality, it is increasingly becoming an organic part of the park, 2019; Dimo Todorovski, 1968. The robust realism of the caryatid of the Skopje City Park, 2019

Figure 10: Aleksandar Petrovski, 2022. Framing the Park: Boundaries and Spatial Interventions in the City Park in Skopje, Master’s Thesis Project; Nikola Momirovski, 2019/2020. Kermes. Upgrading the unfinished post-transitional construction site

Figure 11: The plan of Chişinău, 1834. The Public Garden has a square shape and is divided symmetrically

Figure 12: The general plan, 1942

Figure 13: The general plan, 1945

Figure 14: The project and photo of Stalin’s statue

Figure 15: The design of the graves of the fallen heroes

Figure 16: Project of architect Nikola Lazarov, 1940

Figure 17: Alexander Krastinkov in front of the Fraternal Mound, 1950s

Figure 18: Professors Boyan Penev, Benyo Tsonev, Ivan Chichmanov and students in the Prince Boris Garden, 1915

Figure 19: Young people at the Kravarnika [Cows barn] area, 1920s

Figure 20: The El Shadai [True Witness] Shelter, 1930s

Introduction

The importance of this volume arises from the lack of specialized literature on the Balkans that links the evolution of parks with history, urban changes, traditions, economy and cultural profile of cities. Reviewing the existing literature, one can identify studies in which researchers consider parks as ancillary topic for geographical evolution, social activities, environmental policies, urban design, nature conservation, etc. Generally, there are five main themes where parks appear:

1. Historical origins of parks presented as part of the evolution of a city and considered “pleasure gardens.” Numerous articles and books traced the development of the main cities in Europe and the United States often including public green spaces like Hyde Park (London) and Central Park (New York) to reflect changing attitudes towards leisure, nature appreciation and urban planning. For example, in his review “The Parks and the People: Social History and Urban Parks” Roy Rosenzweig linked the history of different cities with their parks¹. In order to do this he analyzed the following works: “The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted. Volume III: Creating Central Park, 1857–1861” edited by Charles Capen McLaughlin, Charles E. Beveridge, David Schulyer and Frederick Law Olmsted (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1983); “The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks” by Galen Cranz (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1982); and “Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System” by Cynthia Zaitzevsky (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982). Further, in her article “Ancient Mediterranean Pleasure Gardens” Ellen Churchill Semple presented the characteristics and cultural significance of pleasure gardens in ancient Greece and Rome, including their role as spaces for leisure, social gatherings and aesthetic enjoyment². Finally, the work of Pierre Dubois “Porous Places: Music in the (Late) Pleasure Gardens and Social Ambiguity” developed the concept of “social inclusivity” in the pleasure gardens of London in the eighteenth century³.
2. Parks as part of urban planning and design. Researchers examined how parks have been used to address issues such as overcrowding, pollution and social inequality in cities. This way, the authors provided insights into historical developments, theoretical frameworks, practical strategies and contemporary debates. Relevant work on the subject is “Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design since 1880” by Peter Hall, where he brought into attention the evolution of urban planning concepts and practices in Europe, highlighting key movements, theories and influential people⁴. Another important book is “Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities” by Michael Southworth and Eran Ben-Joseph who explored the relationship between urban design and planning, examining how these disciplines intersect and influence one another in shaping cities⁵. Lastly, “The Past and Future City: How Historic Preservation is Reviving America’s Communities” by Stephanie Meeks and Kevin C. Murphy who focused on the role of historical preservation in urban planning, discussing strategies for balancing the conservation of cultural heritage for sustainable development and economic growth⁶.
3. Parks as spaces with social and cultural significance. Certain authors investigated the social and cultural significance of parks as venues for gatherings, recreation and community interaction. They explored how public gardens have served as places for political rallies, protests and celebrations, reflecting broader social movements and changes in public attitudes towards leisure and public space. Moreover, researchers examined the ways in which parks have been used to promote civic identity, cultural heritage and environmental stewardship. For example, in his work “The Social Life of Urban Spaces” William H. Whyte analyzed how the design and layout of urban spaces have influenced social interactions and community life in New York⁷. Additionally, Setha Low in “The Cultural Significance of Urban Parks” captured very well the cultural meanings and social functions of urban parks, highlighting their role as sites of collective memory, cultural expression and community identity. The study “The Right to the City” by David Harvey explored the concept of the same name, asserting that urban spaces must be accessible, inclusive and democratic⁸. Finally, the collection “The Practice of Public Art” edited by Cameron Cartiere and Shelly Willis highlighted the role of public art in transforming urban landscapes and in enhancing the quality of life⁹.
4. Parks’ role in environmental conservation. Over the years, experts have also investigated the development of national parks and protected areas to address concerns about habitat loss, species extinction and resource exploitation. They examined cultural and political factors that have influenced the establishment and management of parks, including debates over land use, economic development and indigenous rights. For example, “The Routledge Handbook of Urban Ecology” explored the concept of urban conservation, highlighting the importance of integrating nature into urban environment to enhance biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being¹⁰. In addition, “The Role of Protected Areas in Conserving Biodiversity” by James E. M. Watson et al. provided an overview of the importance of protected areas, such as national parks and nature reserves in conserving biodiversity¹¹. Fikret Berkes floated a similar idea in “Community-based conservation in a globalized world”, where he used case studies from around the world to highlight the importance of local participation and traditional knowledge in conservation efforts¹². Further, in his selected essays “The Economics of Environment and Development” Edward B. Barbier discussed in an engaging way different economic principles and policy instruments relevant to environmental conservation¹³. Finally, Darrell A. Posey presented the contributions of indigenous peoples to environmental conservation and biodiversity management in “Indigenous peoples and conservation: traditional knowledge and new models for the future.”¹⁴
5. Parks as part of tourism and recreation. Researchers thoroughly studied how parks have been marketed and promoted as tourist destinations attracting visitors from around the world. In addition, authors examined cultural representations of parks in art, literature and popular media, shaping public perceptions and experiences of these spaces. For instance, in “Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies” Charles R. Goeldner and J. R. Brent Ritchie explored the opportunities and challenges of urban tourism focusing on factors driving growth, such as cultural attractions, events and infrastructure.¹⁵ On the other hand, in “Constructing sustainable tourism development: The 2030 agenda and the managerial ecology of sustainable tourism” Michael Hall explored the concept of sustainable tourism development, its principles, strategies and best practices for minimizing negative environmental and socio-cultural impact while ensuring economic benefits¹⁶. Lastly, authors like Greg Richards analyzed the intersection of culture and tourism, exploring the potential of cultural tourism to promote heritage conservation, cultural exchange and economic development.¹⁷

The most popular parks in the above-mentioned studies are the ones in London, New York, Paris and Vienna. However, there are no significant works related to public gardens in Eastern and Southeastern Europe. In this regard, the novelty of the current volume consists in bringing together the main cities in Southeastern Europe—Belgrade, Skopje, Chișinău, Sofia, Zagreb and Athens—through their parks considered as one of their most powerful urban resources. Public gardens are spaces of relaxation; they minimize pollution, have impact on the urban life and host events; represent town’s identity as well as the intrusion of nature into urban life; and inspire writers and artists.

The first four chapters of the volume included in Part I: Parks and city modernization are dedicated to the public gardens in Belgrade. The authors explore diverse topics: identification of spatial patterns, heritage sites and urban memory in Belgrade; impact of the parks in urban modernization; case studies of the University Park, Park Luke Ćelović and Tašmajdan Park in the context of Belgrade’s modernization.

“University Park in Belgrade: The Spatial Structure of (In)Visible Memory” by Milja Mladenović identifies spatial patterns and ways of presentation of heritage sites and urban memory in Belgrade. This chapter focuses on the University Park, situated at the city’s first planned square. The author aims at establishing a multilayered relationship between existing monuments, “invisible” heritage sites and limited public space. Monuments in the public garden are analyzed from the perspective of interaction with the observer within the space, whereas the “invisible” heritage of University Park is assembled using the palimpsest method of layering historical maps, urban plans and mapped sites of historical everyday life. The spatial analysis and the palimpsest approach results provide a mapped and structured database for an understanding of urban morphological and historical events that affected the evolution of the University Park area, emphasizing the continuity of the social life and the politics of memory of the urban space in Belgrade’s center.

Simon Campbell and Marta Stojić Mitrović present an ethnographic research of Park Luke Ćelović in Belgrade in “Narrating the Hidden Center: Exploring the Everyday Naming of Belgrade’s Park Luke Ćelović and re-writing of Non-place from the Margins.” Park Luke Ćelović has a prominent role in Belgrade’s cityscape. It acts as an interstice of mobility through the capital, being located near the central bus terminus and the sprawling Belgrade Waterfront project. Since 2015, the role of this public garden within the so-called Balkan Route has assumed prominence but the space has been punctuated by a range of migration flows, political discourses and forms of racialized urban policing over a far longer time. As such, the park provides a window into everyday urban practices and their relation to the commons, born of interwoven histories and localized interactions between locals, migrants, police, tourists and other entrants to the park. By using a variety of sources, the authors create a complete picture of this park and clarify its role in city’s evolution and its interconnection with other significant places in the Balkans.

The chapter that follows, “Belgrade Parks in the Urban Landscape Transformation”, by Dragana Ćorović, Zlata Vuksanović-Macura, Nevena Vasiljević and Marija Milinković gives an interesting perspective on Belgrade public gardens. Layers of historical, natural, social, environmental, cultural and political specificities of urban parks are explored as indispensable elements in the complex process of transformations of Belgrade urban landscape from the early nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. The four authors use the concept of urban landscape as a methodological approach to explore the ideas of modernization of nature as an inseparable part of the urban realm. The novelty of their analysis lies in the comparison of the evolution of green spaces in Belgrade with other European towns, showing that most of the cities share a similar fate—their spatial evolution shaped by the historical past and the economic growth of respective regions.

In the next chapter “Parks as Sites of Nation-building: A Case Study of Belgrade’s Tašmajdan,” Madeline Stull examines the evolution of cultural property taking into consideration several factors: history, economy, urban landscape, population growth and external cultural influences. Tašmajdan has a central role in Belgrade’s transformation from an “Oriental city” to a “modern European capital” and in creating a new space for Serbian population. This study presents two facets of the park: how urban planners and elites understand and curate the public garden and, alternatively, how current University of Belgrade students see the curation of Belgrade’s landscape in relation to national history and identity. Arguably, the most interesting part of the chapter are the 12 interviews the author conducted with various citizens, from which several conclusions were drawn, including the landscape’s natural ability to speak to the complex history of the city.

In “Episodes from the City Park in Skopje,” Violeta Bakalchev, Sasha Tasic, Aleksandar Petanovski and Minas Bakalchev present this public garden as a sign of modernization and transition from Balkan to European town in the early twentieth century. Their research was conducted on three levels. First, transformation at the level of city as a complex interrelationship between the city and the park. Second, transformation at the level of park as a spatial and chronological intersection of the architecture of this public garden. Third, elements, objects and situations related to certain stratifications and chronological sections but seen as a series of episodes that constitute the real and imagined “biography” of the park. The comprehensive analysis leads the authors to the conclusion that the City Park is consequent upon historical facts and urban changes as well as common work of gardeners, architects and artists.

The first part ends with Alina Ostapov’s chapter titled “Ştefan cel Mare şi Sfânt Public Garden—the Green Heart of Chişinău”. The author highlights the importance of this park in the history of Chișinău, the second largest Romanian city, and analyzes the impact of political episodes, cultural changes and major historical events on the public garden. Previous studies showed that the oldest park in the Republic of Moldova has undergone several transformations, the earliest dating back to the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the wife of Bessarabia’s governor proposed the creation of a public garden. From a garden for relaxation and entertainment, the landscape gradually evolved into a complex park with statues, monuments, small piazzas, fountains, coffee shops and restaurants. All these developments were marked by the historical evolution of Bessarabia and its interconnection with the Balkans and Eastern Europe.