Media and Marginality
Inclusion, Exclusion and Representation
Summary
Excerpt
Table Of Contents
- Cover
- Halftitle Page
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Dedication
- Declaration
- Foreword
- Acknowledgement
- Contents
- Chapter 1. Media, Margin and Marginality: An Introduction
- Part I. Media, Marginalized and Representation
- Chapter 2. Media, Representation and Marginality of Northeast India
- Chapter 3. Alternative Media Representations of Dalit Voices
- Chapter 4. Media, Politics and Marginalization of the Khasi Community in Bangladesh
- Chapter 5. Media, Women and Marginalization: A Perspective on Gender Parity and Representation
- Chapter 6. (Mis)Representation of Biafra in the Media
- Part II. Media, Marginalized and Exclusion
- Chapter 7. Commercial Norms and Social Exclusion of Media in India
- Chapter 8. Role of Media in Transforming the Workplace and Promoting LGBTQIA+ Inclusive Industry in India
- Chapter 9. From the Margins to Centre: The Rise of Indigenous Media in India
- Chapter 10. Gender and the Discriminatory Construction of the Male Figure in Turkish Comedy Films
- Chapter 11. Media and Minorities: An Analysis of Exclusion, Self-Categorization and Social Identity
- Notes on Contributors
- Index
JYOTI RANJAN SAHOO & V. VIJAY KUMAR
Chapter 1 Media, Margin and Marginality: An Introduction Marginality: An Introduction
Human society is diverse and integrated with multi-culture, language, race, class, religion, colour and ethnicity. It cannot be assumed that ethnic, religious, linguistic, speech communities and sexual minorities enjoy equality in various spectrums of life. These communities are on the verge of marginalization due to their unequal status and positions (Louis, 2000; Cox & Roy, 2001). Discrimination, deprivation and exclusion are prevalent among marginalized communities since these communities dwell in the marginal space or periphery of the society. Various literatures suggest that they are not only historically, structurally and culturally deprived but also unable to access the resources and opportunities made available by the nation, state and society (Xaxa, 2008; Mishra, 2010). To understand the complexities of the experience of marginalized communities regarding their process of inclusion and exclusion, one may look at different socio-cultural, economic and cultural perspectives. They are not only deprived of access to equal opportunities but also unequally treated as compared to other diverse communities of society. In the era of liberalization, privatization and globalization, the consumption of communication and culture varies from person to person and group to group. Thus, the process of social change among different clusters depends upon the nature of media consumption (Ravindran, 2021). Therefore, some groups live in a highly mediated environment, while others live in a traditional mediated environment (Suyadi, 2005). So, media has affected every part of the world, irrespective of social groups and their habitats. However, the digital divide perpetuates marginal communities and makes them further marginalized. This introductory chapter explores the possibility and the embedded relation between media and marginalized communities; this may offer the necessary background and explanation of how contemporary media makes religious, linguistic, ethnic minorities and speech communities further disadvantaged, deprived and marginalized.
Margin and Marginality
Social scientists broadly define margin and marginal as those who experience deprived conditions due to social, historical, environmental, economic and cultural factors (Pearlman, 2002; Turner & Young, 2007). It is assumed that a group of people remained in the margin due to their geographical conditions, historical reasons and structural factors. Other scholars argued that origin, habitations, religion, caste and ethnicity are critical factors for a community experiencing marginalization (Raj, 2016; Kharshiing, 2020). The Indian society eke out an existence with diverse communities. Each community continues to be culturally heterogeneous and distinct from each other. These communities relatively hold varied cultures or ways of life. India is the seventh largest country by area and the most populous country in the world, where various marginalized communities live in hill stations, slums and undeveloped areas. They experience different forms of marginality. Those communities tend to be in border areas to face their potential dwellings and poor socio-economic conditions (Nevell, 1999; Hooks, 2000). Different communities in India struggle to access equal resources and opportunities in the health, environment and education sectors. Therefore, the margin is defined based on their history, upbringings, occupations, caste, habitats, dwellings, peripheral locations and conditions.
The community at the centre is considered to be advantaged, but those dwelling at the periphery are more and less likely to be economically and socially marginalized. People at the margin of society are at greater risk of marginalization as they are less likely to participate in governance, politics and public discourses (Horning, 2004). Not only do they often fail to participate, but socio-economic conditions also compel them to remain beyond all spheres of their daily life. Communities dwelling at the periphery are marginal due to their geographical boundaries, and historical and structural reasons. During pre-historic, historical and post-colonial periods, scientists identified the disadvantaged communities generally fallen with three broader areas of their life, for example ecological, economic and socio-political (Blaikie & Brookfield, 1987). Mehretu et al. (2000) mention that the ecological margin is a geographical place in which the community finds difficulty in accessing opportunities and surviving in complex situations. Social margin is a process by which society creates the socio-economic conditions and disadvantages. Collateral margin is where individuals or communities are considered marginalized based on their geographic locations and proximity to other individuals or communities in which they live. Economic margin has often been experienced relative to the lack of financial resources of the individuals. It is commonly assumed that economic conditions may not be sustained.
Marginality is an intricate situation of detriment that causes individuals and communities to go through the process of vulnerability. Various factors contribute to the vulnerabilities as they face disadvantages such as environmental, ethnic, cultural, social, political and economic (Mehretu et al., 2000). The social systems of individuals and communities are historically linked with their context of marginality. Marginal communities have less control over the resources. This results in making them handicapped in delving contribution to society. Various forms of marginality are also prevalent in society. Goetze (1976) defines marginality in terms of power and social relations. The existence of marginal communities seems to depend on their peripheral positions, which are uncontrolled as part of social systems. The unchecked power structures in the social system led to the marginalization of the community.
Generally, people are deprived of socio-political participation when their behaviour falls beyond society’s rules or norms (Shields, 1991, cited in Mehretu et al., 2000). Scholars and social scientists have commonly identified marginal groups based on specific indicators. Socio-economic roles play a more significant role in empowering marginal communities. They tend to become marginal since they do not fulfil their responsibilities due to social pressure (Welbourn, 1981). Marginality also can be seen in terms of gender differentiation. Even in relatively small societies, social relations can create gender inequality regarding geography and social roles. Among others, the leading author’s view on gender marginality is:
The work of men is seen as more valuable than that of women. Men clear trees, fence land and plant certain crops. Which they see as creating improvements and capital. Meanwhile, women undertake repetitive tasks with little social prestige: raising pigs, making and breaking down compost mounds, weeding and harvesting. In this case, a large part of the population is marginalized because of the socially defined value of its contribution, even though it provides the basis of the economy. (Allen & Crittenden, 1987)
Regarding the production of knowledge, some eminent social scientists discuss the concept of marginality since it remains one of the most complicated relationships between the margin and the centre. One of the scholars further explains:
Marginality is much more than a site of deprivation. It is also a site of radical possibility, a space of resistance. Understanding marginality as a position and place of resistance is crucial for oppressed, exploited and colonized people. (Hooks, 1990)
Similarly, Minh-hai (1991) calls marginality – one of the tools of resistance. In this context, the author defines it as the irreducibility of the margin. This majorly indicates the relationship between the margin and the centre. Individuals and groups experience marginality throughout the life due to economic and political oppressions. To contextualize marginality, the author argues that a person whose identities, associations, experiences and associations are peripheralized. Thus, margins can be understood as the proverbial centre of an experience from its periphery. Marginality is also defined as one whose primary assumption is experienced and it exists at many different levels of society, such as caste, class and occupation (Dickie-Clark, 1966). The fact is that indigenous women get further marginalized due to colonial and historical aboriginal representations. They faced double marginalization, being from a margin within the margin.
Similarly, most of India’s tribal population is concentrated in the Northeastern and central regions of the country, which are geographically and culturally backward and dwelling in marginal spaces (Kaisii, 2014). Regarding social and economic development, their problems are different from region to region and within groups. Thus, they have been subjected to societal exploitation and deprivation. Marginality is an embodied experience affecting many people across the globe. The process and forms of marginality seem diverse and exist across countries, nations, societies, regions, religion, caste, ethnicity and gender. Particularly in India, Dalits [untouchables or scheduled caste], Adivasis [tribals or scheduled tribe], women, Muslim minorities, Christians, sexual minorities, people with disabilities, etc., are considered to be most vulnerable and suffering from various forms of marginality not only from early periods but contemporary times as well.
There are various forms of marginality in society. Perlman (2002) described that social marginal is determined based on the lack of accessibility and exposure to mass media, lack of access to urban resources, internal disorganizations, lack of internal social organization, and lack of cohesion. Cultural marginality is defined in terms of cultural traditionalism, such as an enclave of rural parochialism, empathy, fatalism and deference to authority. A culture of poverty is understood as reaction, perpetuation and adaptation of deprivation. Economic marginality considers economic deprivation in terms of lack of access to resources, such as employment, income, consumption, infrastructure work, ethic education, job, training, entrepreneurial values and many more. Similarly, political marginality is defined as political apathy not integrated into political life, such as internal political structures, political interest, saliency, information electoral participation, direct political action and use of administrative channels. Another type of political marginality is political radicalism, which indicates alienation, demand for structural changes, class consciousness and nationalism due to frustration and social disorganization that is prone to leftist radicalism (Perlman, 2002).
Cultural marginality need not necessarily give rise to frustration, as is so commonly supposed. The marginal society may develop a new culture providing norms, behaviour patterns and goals. It offers them an adequate measure of security. But, two sets of values conflict, where significant aspects of the impinging culture as elite accepts. They are defined as incompatible with the indigenous culture; thereby, frustration leads to cultural marginality. In terms of language, it symbolizes values, the environment, culture and identity. Society, at large, conceives and practices diverse languages. Communities that only have unitary language may suffer in accessing opportunities due to a lack of knowledge in various languages. It is well to note that symbolization of this kind is mainly due to conscious valuation or assessment on the part of users of languages. A community’s identity depends on its language, but its non-recognition may lead to experience marginalization.
Marginalization
An individual or a group within the larger society experiences marginalization through social systems and processes (Mullaly, 2007). The function of individuals is excluded from the prevalent systems, thereby limiting the opportunities for survival in society. In other words, an individual who experiences marginalization is excluded from a meaningful participation in society. In the case of community marginalization, individuals or groups are denied or excluded from availing the benefits or welfare schemes accessible to them. Not only they are refrained from welfare benefits and public participation but they also access limited opportunities. In fact, the individuals’ and communities’ fundamental rights are denied. According to sociologists, marginalization comes from the lack of participation and historical, structural and cultural deprivation (Mullaly, 2007; Xaxa, 2008). Communities continue to suffer in accessing equal opportunities and availability of resources, and their identity is being further questioned. The majority of the social groups in India continue to remain culturally and socially marginalized.
The aboriginal communities lost their land and were displaced due to the influence of colonialism in the past. They are even excluded from participation in the labour market. As a result, they even lost their basic rights and values. Various communities continued to be marginalized as they experience societal inequalities and exploitations (Yee, 2005). Women are marginalized despite their higher positions in the public and private sectors. Feminists argue that men and women should equally participate in the labour force. Post-liberalization, privatization and structural forces aggravate poverty and keep individuals at the margins of society. Sewpaul (2006) argues that local cultures and traditions are being eradicated due to the migration and displacement of the locals. Globalization and capitalism keep the community distanced from equal participation and development. Further, it brings them to the edge of society.
Mullaly (2007) argues that the social problems of individuals are deeply connected with the larger social structure in society, causing various forms of oppression and resulting in marginalization. The dominant group, holds higher positions, is unable to understand the subjective experience i. e. cultural, social and historical roots of the oppressed group. These structural factors contribute to further oppression and marginalization (Mullaly, 2007). Marginalization can be neither quantified nor even defined; rather, it signifies a situation in which a section of the population is pushed to the margins (Cox & Roy, 2001).
There are many groups, individuals and communities get marginalized in most parts of the world, not only due to their social strata but also the lower status and positions of ethnic, linguistic and religious minority communities. In developing countries like India, women, children and other weaker sections like Dalits, Tribals and minority communities also tend to be marginalized both physically and mentally. Women face discrimination at every stage of their lives, whether it is an issue of female infanticide, widow remarriage, illiteracy, inequality in their status, role and decision-making, and so on so forth. Similarly, various castes and communities experience marginalization on various grounds such as corruption, environmental sustainability, disparities, discrimination, injustice and exploitation. For every stage of a disadvantaged group, the hierarchy of inequality, disparities and discrimination exists within the group and between the groups, contributing to the degree of marginalization.
In India, the LGBTQIA+ community has struggled over a long period to get justice as far as identity and affirmative measures are concerned. They lack equal opportunities compared to others. The plight of Dalits is also not much improved due to discrimination, untouchability and other issues like depression and suppression in a caste-hierarchical society like India. The lack of equal opportunity has further marginalized Muslims, Christians and other deprived communities. Discrimination, deprivation and exclusion are also different forms of marginalization that are broadly prevalent in society. The process of deprivation and exclusion is also an experience and it persists in the culture and social structure of the marginalized community. The varieties of social exclusion in terms of new poverty, democratic legal and political exclusion, non-material disadvantage and exclusion from the minimally acceptable way of life are seen as a form of marginalization. One of the scholars describes:
Marginalization is a cultural exclusion in terms of exclusion from family and the community, exclusion from the welfare state, poverty, lack of participation in politics, economic life and state of deprivation, detachment from work relations and exclusion from the labour market. (Peace, 2001)
The other minority groups coming from ethnic, linguistic and religious communities like drug addicts, HIV/AIDS patients and people with disabilities are socially excluded from accessing their opportunities, and their minority status is claimed as a form of marginalization. Women are marginalized because of the structural and systemic societal perception and gender discrimination. Women are also marginalized due to three recognized factors: economic situation, social position and political power. Inequalities are inherent and persist even in traditional social structures based on caste, community, religion and class since these influence women’s status (Desai & Thakker, 2001). Women were subjugated for centuries, which creates gender disparities and exclusion; thus, they experience marginalization (Dasgupta et al., 2012). This is a global phenomenon where gender inequality prevails in a patriarchal society where males are considered to be superior. Women within the lower caste and communities are double marginalized as they are socially deprived and unequally treated in comparison to men in society irrespective of their region, religion, caste, community, language, ethnicity, etc. Similarly, in connection with society at large, Hooks (2000) describes that the varied experience of leading women creates exclusionary social bonding among women, which can be seen as common oppression. Thus, the internalized oppression among women of colour and intolerance for women’s right to make choices about their sexuality are considered as deprived or underprivileged. Women of different castes, creeds and colours are kept alienated from participating in the feminist movement and being discriminated against on these social grounds. Women’s suppression and oppression have become a global phenomenon since experiencing racial discrimination and colonialism (Ghosh, 2004). It has further created gender discrimination, inequality and exploitation that has led to marginalization.
Similarly, minority communities, especially Muslims, are not far behind other marginalized communities. They are also marginalized due to suffering from religious indifferences, exploitation, deprivation and poverty (Robinson, 2007). Muslim minorities are backward in terms of their vulnerability and discrimination, irrespective of rural and urban regions. Evidence suggests that the prolonged religious violence in India played a significant role in causing social and economic vulnerability among minorities (Mishra & Singh, 2002; Razzack & Gumber, 2002). Discrimination, violence and social exclusion have further depressed Muslim aspirations and pushed them to the margins. It indicates that Muslims in India are on the margins of the economic, social and political structures. Similarly, Muslim women are disadvantaged not by religion alone but by a complex of forces, including class and gender. In India, communal conflicts and riots involving Hindus and Muslims have a long history. The term ‘communalism’ essentially carries a negative connotation of how communalism was socio-politically constructed in colonial North India, thereby creating marginalization among both communities in India.
Marginalization can also be seen as a form of caste discrimination in which Dalits in India face social discrimination (Anand, 1970). Dalits are different from the other castes in India due to their education and geographical, cultural and social existence. The marginalization of Dalits remains in all spheres of their life, violating their fundamental rights (Kumar, 2011). Dalits are oppressed by socio-economic and political disability. India is a society in which a substantial section of the population was discriminated against by Brahminical Hinduism and subjected to humiliation, even treated as untouchables. Protesting this, the communities have rearticulated their identity as Dalits (literally, the oppressed). An essential aspect of hierarchy associated with caste, apart from discrimination and oppression, is humiliation. Within an interdisciplinary framework, Guru (2000) mentions that through humiliation, the state also discriminates against Dalit Christians, as they are excluded from the privileges of protective discrimination that are extended to the scheduled castes. However, in some states of India like Andhra Pradesh (a southern state in India), they are included under the OBC (Other Backward Classes). This community also are traditionally discriminated against and suppressed by entrenched dominant communities as a way out of discrimination and suppression (Subham, 2022).
Unlike scheduled castes, the scheduled tribes are also suffering from diverse cultural issues like ethnicity, language and identity. They are considered to be socially and economically disadvantaged due to their peripheral habitation and lack of access to and participation in mainstream development. For ages, tribal societies have had their own cultural and religious belief system (Louis, 2000). But modern, globalized and technological society find their religion as animistic and derogative. Before the others, tribal religious life was looked down upon, and this made them further inherently marginalized. Their history, as closely integrated with the colonial system, has created and brought tribal communities into the fold of exploitation, subjugation and marginalization. Tribals are not only marginalized due to external forces, rather internal, structural and cultural factors also deprive them. Thus, they continue to remain marginalized over a period of time. Tribals, in general, are shunted away from the possession of land during pre-colonial periods. In fact, their identity, culture and religion have been dispossessed during pre-colonial and post-colonial periods as well. There were long debates on the issues of tribal identity in terms of their traditional occupations, lifestyle and indigenous culture over a period of time (Xaxa, 2008). They are still considered to be marginalized due to the non-identification of official language, non-recognition of cultural traditions and lack of tribal identity.
Marginalization inhibits a person, a group, a section or a community from enjoying rights, privileges, opportunities and resources commonly available to society members. Tribal communities in India have been alienated from the development processes and their own dwellings due to various historical and developmental factors. Hence, they are pushed to the margin of society. As historically marginalized, the recent development processes tend to create social spaces of inequality, tribal communities face marginalization virtually in every sphere of social life. Similarly, tribal communities, which experienced isolation from mainstream Hinduism, were converted to Christianity by the missionaries. However, Robinson and Kujur (2010) found that the Dalit and tribal Christian communities are not only marginalized but also negatively represented. They argue:
Dalits and tribal Christians are characterized more by their deficiencies in relation to the dominant framework, which is elite and brahminical. Interestingly, these independent expressions of faith are not only adequately treated in the literature, but also marginalized by mainstream Christianity, regardless of the denomination.
Tribal communities converted to Christianity have been constrained and opposed by majoritarians, as it seems that Christians face double marginalization. The expression of sub-nationalism in Northeast India is different in that tribal ethnicity is an intractable issue there and insurgency has been a perennial problem for Northeastern states of India (Kikhi & Gautam, 2023). Nag (2002) views ethnicity and insurgency in the region as a reaction of communities to the experience of marginality. In other words, the tribes in this region also differ from their counterparts in other parts of India in different ways. Due to more or less Hindu influence and adoption of English education in the recent past, tribals are more advanced in terms of literacy rate and absorption of the modern economy compared to other counterparts elsewhere in India (Kaisii, 2014).
Marginalization strongly prevails in society and has been experienced by various communities such as tribals, Dalits, Muslims, women, LGBTQIA+ and other minority groups. Discrimination and disparities have prevailed and have been entrenched in society since ancient history. The perpetuation of Dalit’s plight has increased manifold due to discrimination and untouchability. Muslims also face double marginalization such as religious discrimination, inequality, indifferences and territorial issues. Various literature suggest that marginal communities, irrespective of their states and social condition, have been experiencing a hierarchy of inequality, disparities, discrimination and differences that further contribute to the degree of marginalization.
Details
- Pages
- XVI, 296
- ISBN (PDF)
- 9781803749266
- ISBN (ePUB)
- 9781803749273
- ISBN (Softcover)
- 9781803749259
- DOI
- 10.3726/b22638
- Language
- English
- Publication date
- 2025 (June)
- Keywords
- Marginality Media Inclusion Exclusion and Representation
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