Crisis of Representation

Foreword

The literature and broadly understood arts have always served as a mirror reflecting human reality, representing divisions, struggles, triumphs, and ongoing transformations within society. Playing the role of media and the same being a powerful tool of potential influence, both in the past and present, they inform, teach but also shape the picture of political, philosophical, religious, and cultural developments. However, in the twentieth century, and in recent decades specifically, literature and arts alike were seemingly losing its potential, and what has been diagnosed as the crisis of representation. Winfred Nöth rhetorically asking about this crisis (2003, 9–15) identified three, strongly affected, fields: literature, the arts and the media, philosophy, and semiotics. Diagnosed reasons for the crisis included the loss of the referent, ever-increasing distance from the reality of the referential world, the crisis of truth in political discourse, crisis of the idea of representation in philosophy, and the paradox of self-reference in semiotics. These determined reasons for the crisis of representation are addressed in the scholarly inquiries of the present volume each offering a distinct point on it within the realm of literature and the arts.

The analysis of Samuel Beckett’s works, specifically focusing on how these texts present and challenge the relationship between reality and its portrayal is demonstrated by Edward Colerick in the chapter “Least Most is Best: A Study of Samuel Beckett’s Ill Seen Ill Said and Worstward Ho”. This crisis of representation is exemplified by the play Ohio Impromptu, where the characters Listener and Reader may represent a split between the ‘self’ and the ‘self-image’. This separation reflects a deeper crisis as the Listener appears to struggle with recognizing his own life within the narrative, suggesting a dissonance between his reality and its representation. The narrative structure in Ohio Impromptu, with its pauses and repetitions, shows the Listener’s difficulty in accepting the narrative, hinting at a broader theme of isolation and disconnection. This aspect of the drama emphasises the gap between the individual’s experience and the representation of that experience, highlighting a crisis in self-perception and identity. In extending the discussion to Beckett’s Worstward Ho and Ill Seen Ill Said, the text explores how these works take the crisis of representation further by deliberately breaking down the narrative structure to its bare essentials. This deconstruction serves to strip away layers of representational adornments, leaving a stark depiction of fundamental human experiences such as love, hope, loss, despair, and pain. The narrator’s insistence on portraying a world in a pastless now underlines the notion that these stories exist outside traditional temporal and factual realities, which further complicates any attempt to equate the narratives with literal truth. The crisis of representation in Beckett’s work is not just about the fragmentation of narrative, but also about the struggle to express the inexpressible. The reduction of narrative elements to their most basic forms – onceless till no more – reflects an effort to reach a state of ultimate clarity and simplicity, yet this effort is marked by a constant failure to capture a definitive truth or reality. Thus, the crisis of representation in Beckett’s works, as illustrated in the chapter, lies in the tension between the depicted narratives and the elusive nature of true reality. This is seen in the continuous struggle of the characters and narrators to convey an authentic sense of existence, even as the narratives themselves expose the limitations and failures of such representations. The crisis is ultimately a reflection of the fundamental human condition, where the quest for meaning and truth is perpetually undermined by the limitations of language and narrative structure.

In his chapter “Commodifying the Child: Sacrificial Scapegoating in Ann Radcliffe’s A Sicilian Romance (1790)”, Charlie Jorge explores the scapegoat archetype through the lens of René Girard’s theory of victimisation, who established a sacrificial pattern based on what he termed stereotypes. As will be seen, Girard based his theories on scapegoating examining mythical, as well as historical and literary sources. Through these, Girard observed a recurring pattern, his stereotypes, laying out some common features, such as the initial crisis a community faces, followed by what he calls the stereotyped accusations – crimes attached to the potential victims of sacrifice – and the isolation scapegoat figures are subjected to. This chapter will show how Ann Radcliffe uses scapegoat figures in her gothic novel A Sicilian Romance to denounce a crisis in the representation of the ordeals which children, in particular daughters, went through at the end of the 18th century, when they were mere commodities in the marriage market, going through the persecution pattern scapegoating victims suffer. Radcliffe will make her heroines, Julia in particular, the victims of persecution, isolation and unjust accusations of disloyalty to their family and duties. This chapter will show how Radcliffe unveils a grim reality women had to face in England at the end of the 18th century, and for some years to come: how women represented their households and families, and had to adjust to the desires of both fathers and potential husbands. Charlie Jorge will reveal how, represented by Radcliffe’s heroine, Julia Mazzini, daughters became the victims of a patriarchal system that saw them as sacrificial objects to be used for the social and economic improvement of their house and nation.

Katarzyna Kozak in the chapter “Representing Jonathan Swift: A hybridized image” explores the concept of a crisis of representation through the discussion of how contemporary literary theories and interpretations can distort the understanding of historical figures and their works, using Jonathan Swift as a case study. This crisis emerges from the tension between maintaining historical fidelity and the inclination to apply modern theoretical frameworks, which can challenge the authenticity and coherence of historical and literary narratives. The text highlights that while new literary theories offer fresh perspectives, they can also lead to a distorted image of authors like Swift. This distortion arises because these modern lenses can significantly diverge from the true historical persona of the author, suggesting a crisis in the integrity of historical representation. The variety of perspectives provided by contemporary theories often results in a fragmented and contradictory portrayal of Swift, complicating the understanding of his true intentions and the context of his writings. A key aspect of this crisis is the selective focus on specific elements of Swift’s work to fit particular theoretical frameworks, which leads to a fragmented understanding of his overall literary contributions. This selective approach not only disrupts the holistic nature of Swift’s oeuvre but also risks creating misinterpretations and a loss of the comprehensive view needed to accurately represent his views and intentions. The chapter critiques the application of modern perspectives, such as feminist criticism, psychoanalysis, and queer studies, to Swift’s work. This application often projects contemporary values and ideologies onto historical figures, resulting in anachronistic interpretations that misrepresent their thoughts and actions. Katarzyna Kozak argues that such approaches can lead to misunderstandings about the socio-political realities of the past, thereby distorting historical truth. Furthermore, the text notes that the deconstructionist approach to Swift’s work can result in a hybrid and often contradictory image. This approach, while revealing underlying biases and assumptions, can deepen the crisis of representation by fragmenting the author’s identity into incompatible parts. For example, presenting Swift as both a misogynist and a critic of misogyny, or as a conservative and a proto-modernist, demonstrates the challenges in maintaining a coherent narrative about his work and beliefs. The chapter warns of the dangers when theory-oriented approaches dominate literary studies. The focus on fitting Swift’s work into modern theoretical frameworks might lead to a version of Swift that is distorted and unrecognizable from the historical figure, not only creating a crisis where the academic portrayal diverges significantly from the real historical person, but what seems more dangerous, when through popular narratives this distorted academic portrayal is presented to a broader non-academic audience.

The concept of a crisis of representation in the context of Brexit is addressed by María del Pino Montesdeoca Cubas in “‘Fictionalizing Life; Living in Fiction’: Authorial Representations of Brexit Divides in Jonathan Coe’s Middle England” through the examination of how literary works reflect and respond to the polarised political and social situation in the United Kingdom. The chapter, with its theoretical background based on Hanna Meretoja’s reconceptualising of Narrative Hermeneutics and Narrative Agency, demonstrates how an ideological political campaign can be represented, scrutinised and questioned in Brexit fiction. Commenting on the results of democratic choices of 2016, Meretoja states that “the political campaigns that led to “Brexit” and Donald Trump’s election were largely based on producing and reinforcing aggressive subsumptive narratives” (2018, 10). Meretoja suggests that the solution which could possibly lead to changes lies in a transformative storytelling engagement and aligns it with the belief that literature can expand our awareness and promote a more inclusive understanding of diverse perspectives (2018, 20). Therefore, political campaigns associated with the relations between the UK and the EU should be significantly portrayed and examined in fiction. Coe’s novel proves to be an example. The withdrawal from the European Union exposed already existing deep divisions within the country, with contrasting emotions of nostalgia and supremacy among Brexit supporters, with feelings of fracture and loss among those opposed to the withdrawal. The crisis of representation is manifested in literature’s attempt to capture the complex realities of this divided society. This polarisation has influenced contemporary fiction, where authors like Jonathan Coe, use narrative strategies to explore and represent this crisis. “Middle England” exemplifies this zeitgeist through its narrative tone, which combines humour with serious political and social criticism. This approach aims to reflect the climate of crisis in the UK by portraying various perspectives on Brexit, thereby offering a broad view of the situation. The novel’s ethical engagement is significant, as it seeks to document and understand the collective experiences and emotions surrounding the country’s departure from the EU. This issue introduces the question about the role of literature in shaping collective memory and understanding. By providing detailed and context-rich narratives, authors like Coe contribute to an ongoing dialogue about the cultural, political and ethical implications of Brexit.