Loading...
Title: The Cyber and Information Space Matrix: A Conceptual Framework

The Cyber and Information Space Matrix: A Conceptual Framework

A Comprehensive Guide to Navigating the Digital Age: Cross-Domain Influences of Cyberspace

by Bianca Lins (Volume editor) Josef Schroefl (Volume editor)
©2026 Edited Collection 280 Pages
History & Political Science

Summary

This book provides an overview of the complex discussions on cyberspace, as well as a detailed analysis of the role of the Cyber and Information Space, which corresponds with current state-of-the-art perspectives. By combining neoliberal economic practices with the oligarchic ownership of global communication platforms, opinion-forming giants have firmly established themselves in the digital space in only a few decades. They largely dictate the global public experience and manipulate what the public hears and sees based on their own rules, or algorithms. This new asymmetry of informational power must be acknowledged as a strategic risk. Cybersecurity in the 21st century cannot be separated from questions of public discourse, digital literacy, algorithmic transparency, and platform accountability. Cybersecurity is no longer just an issue of national defence or risk management, it is a defining question of sovereignty, democracy, and societal cohesion.

Table Of Contents

  • Cover
  • Title Page
  • Copyright Page
  • Dedication
  • Contents
  • Foreword
  • Introduction (Bianca Lins and Josef Schroefl)
  • Cyberspace: The Basis for the Comprehensive Digital Transformation of Our Society—An Introduction (Helmut Leopold)
  • 1. Cyberspace—a World apart from any particular nation-state
  • 2. Evolution from telephony via the internet to cyberspace
  • 3. Cyberspace as an innovation space and basis for societal and economic digital transformation
  • 4. Cyberspace in the tension between a self-governing multistakeholder platform and powerful oligopolies with global centralized power structures
  • 5. Data spaces as a new concept to en able open and fair marketplaces for data-driven business models
  • 6. Cyberspace as a new challenge for our economy and democracies
  • 7. Human digitalization through comprehensive technology shaping—conclusions
  • Cybersecurity in Critical Infrastructures (Bianca Lins)
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Defining critical infrastructure in a global context
  • 3. Critical infrastructure and technology
  • 4. Foundations of cybersecurity and risk management in critical infrastructure
  • 5. Cybersecurity standards and best practices for critical infrastructure protection
  • 6. NIS framework
  • 7. NIS2 directive
  • a. Essential Entities (EE)
  • Energy Sector
  • Transport Sector
  • Banking and Financial Market Infrastructure
  • Healthcare Sector
  • Drinking Water Supply and Wastewater Management
  • Digital Infrastructure
  • Public Administration
  • Space Sector
  • b. Important Entities (IE)—Broader Coverage with Lower Regulatory Burden
  • Postal and Courier Services
  • Waste Management
  • Chemical and Food Industry
  • Manufacturing of Critical Products
  • Digital Providers
  • Research Institutions
  • c. Strengthened Cybersecurity Obligations under NIS2
  • Risk Management Measures
  • Mandatory Cyber Incident Reporting
  • Strengthened Enforcement Mechanisms and Penalties for Non-compliance
  • Supply Chain Security and Third-Party Risk Management
  • 8. Comparative legal perspectives on critical infrastructure protection
  • a. European Union
  • b. United States
  • c. United Kingdom
  • d. Comparative Insights
  • 9. Cybersecurity threats to critical infrastructure
  • 10. Notable cyberattacks on critical infrastructure
  • 11. Vulnerabilities in industrial control systems (ICS)
  • 12. Emerging threats and trends in critical infrastructure security
  • 13. Conclusions
  • Rethinking Cyber Risks to Space Infrastructure (Bianca Lins)
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. The deep connection between space infrastructure and cyber systems
  • 3. Regulatory blind spots and structural misconceptions in securing space infrastructure
  • 4. Threat vectors targeting critical space infrastructure
  • a. Electronic attacks: jamming, spoofing and eavesdropping
  • b. Cyberattacks: malware, network intrusions and supply chain exploits
  • 5. Governing the intersection of cybersecurity and space
  • 6. Conclusion
  • The Civil, But Also the Public Sector (K Royal)
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. The importance of protecting data and cybersecurity for individuals
  • 3. Challenges private entities face in protecting personal data
  • a. Protecting People
  • b. Protecting Corporate Assets
  • c. Legal Obligations
  • 4. Maintaining cyber hygiene
  • 5. Conclusion
  • Cyber Diplomacy (Bianca Lins)
  • 1. What is cyber diplomacy?
  • 2. Evolution of cyber diplomacy
  • a. Emergence of Cyber Threats and Initial Diplomatic Responses
  • b. Institutionalization of Cyber Diplomacy
  • c. Development of International Cyber Norms
  • d. Emergence of Multistakeholder Initiatives
  • e. Integration of Cyber Diplomacy into Foreign Policy
  • f. Challenges and Ongoing Developments
  • 3. The EU cyber diplomacy toolbox
  • a. Purpose and Components
  • b. Response Framework for Malicious Cyber Activities
  • c. Coordinated Attribution and Diplomatic Measures
  • 4. The Paris call for trust and security in cyberspace
  • a. Origins and Principles
  • b. Multistakeholder Support and Limitations
  • 5. Cyber norms and international law
  • a. Key Areas of Agreement and Divergence
  • b. Legal Applicability in Cyberspace
  • c. Role of Voluntary Norms
  • 6. Challenges and geopolitical tensions
  • a. Competing Narratives: Open vs. Sovereign Internet
  • b. Influence Operations and Attribution Difficulties
  • c. Lawfare and State-Sponsored Cyber Threats
  • 7. The future of cyber diplomacy
  • 8. Conclusion
  • The Intersection of Law and Cybersecurity (Josef Schroefl and Claudia Carvalho)
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Cyberwar
  • 3. Tallinn Manual 2.0
  • 4. The Budapest convention as a framework against ransomware in Latin America
  • **Article 2—Illegal access**
  • **Article 5—System interference**
  • a. Context of Ransomware in Latin America
  • b. Law Enforcement in Latin America and the Budapest Convention
  • Argentina
  • **Article 157 bis**
  • Chile
  • Brazil
  • Article 2 The principles of the National Cybersecurity Policy (PNCiber) are:
  • 5. Conclusion
  • Economic and Financial Influence Operations in the Hybrid Threats Spectrum (Bernard Siman)
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Threats to the components of the financial system
  • a. Targets are Hard and Soft
  • b. Economic Security and Financial Security: Linked but Distinct Security Spheres
  • c. Trojan Horse Operations 1: Financial Hybrid Threat Examples and Scenarios
  • d. Trojan Horse 2: Misuse of Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) Requirements
  • e. The Anatomy of an ESG Hybrid Operation: The Lynchpin is an Activist Investor
  • f. Anatomy of an ESG hybrid operation: Misuse of ESG
  • g. EU’s Ambiguous Position on ESG Hinders Financing for Defense Innovation
  • h. Trojan Horse 3: Convertible Loans
  • i. “Threat Finance” will Continue to Play a Subversive Role, Especially for Terrorists
  • j. Deepfakes: Hybrid Threat to Identification of Financially Transacting Parties
  • k. FDI screening Insufficient
  • 3. Hybrid financial influence operations targeting global financial stability
  • a. Where FEIOPS Sit in the Hybrid Spectrum
  • b. International Monetary System Vulnerable to Hybrid Threats
  • c. FEIOPS Target the Fiat System, as it is Closely Linked to Geopolitics Through the U.S. Dollar
  • 4. Conclusion
  • The Hammer and the Screw (Matthias Wasinger)
  • 1. Peace, or the absence of war
  • a. 13 “domains”
  • b. What is a domain? A military perspective
  • c. Why it matters
  • d. The military’s role
  • 2. Defense and deterrence
  • 3. Nailing the screw
  • 4. Grand strategy and strategy
  • 5. National power, military power, cyberpower
  • 6. Conclusion
  • The Human Element in Cybersecurity Defense (Nadja El Fertasi)
  • 1. Introduction
  • a. Emotional intelligence plays a pivotal role here
  • b. The stakes are real
  • 2. The human factor in cybersecurity
  • a. How Hackers Exploit Human Emotion
  • b. Case Studies: When People Are the Point of Entry
  • c. People as Both the Weakest Link—and the First Line of Defense
  • 3. Understanding Emotional Intelligence in Cybersecurity
  • a. The EQ-i 2.0 model
  • Self-Perception: Knowing Yourself Under Pressure. Self-Regard
  • Self-Actualization
  • Emotional Self-Awareness
  • Self-Expression: Responding with Clarity and Control
  • Emotional Expression
  • Assertiveness
  • Independence
  • Interpersonal: Building a Culture of Cyber Vigilance
  • Interpersonal Relationships
  • Empathy
  • Social Responsibility
  • Decision Making: Thinking Clearly Under Manipulation
  • Problem Solving
  • Reality Testing
  • Impulse Control
  • Stress Management: Resilience in a High-Threat Environment
  • Flexibility
  • Stress Tolerance
  • Optimism
  • From Framework to Practice: Emotional Firewalls in Action
  • b. An Analogy: The Emotional Firewall
  • Awareness Training
  • Educate individuals about the psychological tactics attackers use
  • Emotional Regulation Skills
  • Teach techniques to manage emotional responses under pressure
  • Promoting Assertiveness and Independence
  • Empower employees to challenge suspicious requests, regardless of the sender’s status
  • Enhancing Decision-Making Skills
  • Equip individuals with the tools to think critically and objectively
  • Building Strong Interpersonal Relationships
  • Create a psychologically safe environment where employees can share concerns and support each other
  • Leadership Modeling
  • Have leaders demonstrate and advocate for emotional intelligence
  • 4. Emotional Firewalls: A Pioneering and Disruptive Approach to Cybersecurity
  • 5. Imagining a Future Rooted in Emotional Firewalls
  • Appendix
  • How to Use This Glossary
  • The Role of Intelligence Services in Cyber Security (Gazmend Huskaj)
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Intelligence services in the scientific literature
  • a. Cyber Threat Intelligence
  • b. AI and Emerging Technologies in Threat Intelligence
  • c. Standardization and Collaborative Threat Intelligence Sharing
  • d. From Incident Response to Cyber Threat Intelligence
  • e. Offensive and Defensive Roles of Intelligence Services
  • f. National Security, AI, and Ethical Challenges in Intelligence
  • g. Cross-Sectoral Applications: Healthcare and Energy
  • Analysis 1: Intelligence Services in Cyber Security
  • 3. Cyber threat intelligence
  • 4. AI and emerging technologies in threat intelligence
  • 5. Standardization and collaborative threat intelligence sharing
  • 6. From incident response to cyber threat intelligence
  • 7. Offensive and defensive roles of intelligence services
  • 8. National security, AI, and ethical challenges in intelligence
  • 9. Cross-sectoral applications: healthcare and energy
  • Analysis 2: Integrative Synthesis of Evolving Intelligence Roles in Cybersecurity
  • 10. Conclusion
  • Future Prospects and Developments in Cybersecurity (Geert Baudewijns)
  • 1. The massive increase of data in the cloud
  • 2. The automation of cyberattacks through AI
  • 3. AI as a weapon to exploit human error
  • 4. The explosion of vulnerabilities
  • 5. America first: the lack of European telemetry
  • 6. The outdated knowledge of IT personnel
  • 7. The illusion of knowledge: AI reports that no human understands
  • 8. The rise of mandatory cybersecurity legislation
  • 9. The evolution of ransomware from encryption to data theft
  • 10. The emergence of three cyber spheres of influence: the United States, Russia and Asia
  • 11. The rise of cybercrime as a tool of sabotage
  • 12. The need for coordinated European cybersecurity cooperation
  • 13. The exponential growth of bank fraud
  • 14. Linking bank-to-home fraud to cyber techniques
  • 15. Social media’s underestimated impact on disinformation
  • 16. The danger of artificial intelligence combined with source codes
  • 17. The unprecedented speed of (cyber)attacks
  • 18. The expected exponential growth of the darknet
  • 19. The threat to individuals from AI-driven fraud
  • 20. The need for stricter screening of IT personnel
  • 21. Conclusion
  • Findings and Conclusions (Bianca Lins and Josef Schroefl)
  • Findings
  • Conclusions
  • Annexes
  • Glossary of Abbreviations
  • Bibliography
  • Notes on Contributors

Foreword

Since the word “Cyberspace” first came into use, in the 1980s, we have seen a fulgurant development of the digital technologies. Never, other new technologies have had such an impact on the personal life of so many people around the globe, as now the cyber and information space.

It is a virtual world, based on hardware and software, but its impact on our physical environment, on our daily life, our human, especially intergenerational, relationships is increasingly felt, though difficult to measure and its potentialities even more difficult to predict. Our languages are slowly adapting to these new ways of communication and information. We find our jobs altered or suppressed by it and new jobs with other specifications created. The way people inform, entertain themselves, move from one place to another or do their daily professional and home tasks find new forms to which we might adapt, often without much reflection. If, however, we want to determine our future consciously and influence the impact of these digital technologies, we must better understand how they work and what changes they bring or might bring to our societies. This book is an excellent and comprehensive tool to know what the cyber and information space is, its abilities, shortcomings and dangers. It is a powerful help in living with them and using them.

It becomes an indispensable companion for all those who carry major responsibilities in politics, the economy and other strata of human activities, as these technologies not only can change our individual lives but whole societies and not least the power balance between states.

Cyber and information space is a multi-trillion economy, where the United States and China are in the lead and so reaping political and economic power with it. Alone cyber criminality has reached, regretfully, sales figures of more than 1.4 trillion USD on the internet, often helped by rogue states. In warfare it starts to play a decisive role, as we already see in the sad war Russia’s against Ukraine. In western countries cyber war has already arrived. It is quite likely that a next war will not be won thanks to traditional hardware of defense, but the better use of artificial intelligence, communications and robotics.

There is much to do on the one hand to improve the common good by the use of these rupture technologies or on the other to limit their applications in protecting the data of citizens or to better fight cyber criminality. A broad knowledge is needed taking the right decisions in this sense, as the cyber and information space is very much intertwined with other cutting-edge technologies and other applications, for instance in medicine and pharmaceutics, in the space economy and in education. Also, one must bear in mind that the digital world can’t be confined to individual countries, or then only at huge costs. Those powers, like the United States and China, who are dominating these technologies have therefore an economic and strategic advantage worldwide. (Europe is seen lacking behind, in particular concerning artificial intelligence, though their universities and other research centers might still be in the lead when it comes to understand the scientific bases of the rupture technologies. Much in them still works on a trial-and-error bases. The huge consumption of energy to produce generative AI is an example of that. Instead of investing huge sums in AI applications trying to catch up with the United States, a first step might be to bundle the scientific knowledge in the cyber and information space, still much scattered around the Continent. A public–private partnership agency to coordinate scientific work in Europe and propose tailor-made investments might help to find a new start. DARPA in the United States might be an example to study.

Politicians have a huge task in regulating this digital world. They will need to find the right balance between national legislation with limited outreach, or regional agreed rules, or seeking a global understanding for the welfare and protection of their people. They also need a good discernment in applying precautionary principles: When are they really needed or when are they too big a hindrance for innovation and the economic development. So, politicians have a specific obligation to understand what the cyber and information space is and what directions it takes. Therefore, this book is in particular recommended to them.

With gratitude to the editors and authors, I wish this navigating tool in the cyber and information space a wide readership, contributing markedly to a better use of these new technologies.

June 20, 2025 Prince Nikolaus von Liechtenstein

Introduction

Bianca Lins and Josef Schroefl

The cyber domain is made up of interdependent networks of information technology infrastructures and resident data, including the internet, telecommunications networks, and computer systems. The growing dependence on information technology and the interconnection with critical infrastructure have made a secure cyberspace vital for the functioning of a modern state and society. The war in Ukraine also showed us that cyber has emerged as one of the key enablers of the coexistence of security and convenience in the post-Corona network-centric world. It was the first full-scale war in which cyber operations were deployed alongside kinetic warfare from the very outset. The Viasat satellite communications attack on the eve of the invasion demonstrated how modern conflicts are no longer fought solely on land, sea, and air—but also in the invisible terrain of networks, algorithms, and signal interference. This marked a paradigm shift, not only for military strategists but also for policymakers, regulators, and civilians.

The resemblance between international politics and science fiction is becoming increasingly apparent. Technologies that were once confined to the vivid imaginations of forward-thinking politicians are becoming commonplace in future projections: smart cities, medical cryonics, robotics, drones, AI or cloud computing—all of which are controlled by command-and-control systems based in cyberspace. This means that cyber as a domain is rife with wild cards, making anticipation a challenge. As a consequence, the international order will be increasingly influenced by digitalization and the use of new technologies. Yet, these technologies are not neutral. They reflect the values, interests, and power structures of those who design and deploy them. As states race to shape the digital frontier, cyberspace becomes an extension of geopolitical rivalry—whether through control over undersea cables, dominance in the semiconductor supply chain, or normative influence over global cyber governance.

Emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning also come with new threats. Threat actors now use these advances to develop and implement sophisticated attacks at a much faster rate. This rapid evolution impacts various sectors and necessitates robust cyber defense mechanisms. In fact, all this will not only have consequences for the future international order but will also affect international security and defense politics and pose a challenge, not only for political theory in particular, but also for international politics in general.

Today’s threat landscape includes generative AI models used for disinformation, deepfake technologies that undermine trust in visual evidence, and autonomous systems that may one day operate beyond direct human control. The very foundation of political legitimacy—truth, accountability, and trust—is increasingly at risk in a digitally manipulated world.

There is currently no comprehensive study on cyberspace since “The Landscape of Hybrid Threats—a conceptual model,” developed by Hybrid CoE and recognized by the EU and NATO.1 The aim is to provide a thorough and comprehensive overview of the multifaceted and complex discussions on this topic, as well as an empirical and detailed analysis of the role of the Cyber and Information Space, which corresponds with current state-of-the-art perspectives.

This volume attempts to fill that gap. It offers not only a cross-domain perspective—covering areas from finance and healthcare to critical infrastructure and outer space—but also bridges theory and practice. By including voices from law, strategy, technology, and international relations, the book acknowledges that cybersecurity cannot be solved within silos. It must be understood as an inherently interdisciplinary and intersectoral endeavor.

This overview also includes an outlook on the advancement of new technologies, addressing not only further research questions but also the ensuing implications at strategic, military and political levels. Additionally, it encompasses an intellectual and theoretical examination of the future development of this dimension. It will deal with nine out of 13 domains because some have overlapping impacts within the Cyber and Information Space. The penultimate chapter will take a close look at the role of so-called “new technologies,” such as artificial intelligence for the Cyber and Information Space, while the last chapter will summarize key concepts and offer an outlook on the future of cybersecurity.

Special attention is paid to the convergence of cyber and space—two domains traditionally treated separately but increasingly interlinked through satellite-based communication, Earth observation, and navigation systems. The growing reliance on space assets not only amplifies systemic risk but also challenges our regulatory and institutional readiness.

Ultimately, this study aims to serve not only as a comprehensive guide but also as a foundational reference for political and military decision-makers to meet the challenges of new security risks. It underscores the paradigm shift in contemporary security policy, which must transition from a reactive threat-based approach to a proactive one. This approach focuses on creating conditions that pre-emptively mitigate or prevent threats. The aim of the study is therefore to contribute to the security of Europe and the international system. In doing so, it aspires to foster a deeper understanding of the intricate dynamics of cyber threats and the proactive strategies needed to safeguard our interconnected world. By integrating innovative research and forward-thinking strategies, the study seeks to empower decision-makers to navigate the complexities of the digital age, ensuring a secure, stable, and prosperous future for all.

As editors, we are convinced that cybersecurity must no longer be understood as a purely technical challenge. It is a systemic issue that requires political foresight, legal innovation, and societal resilience—across all domains. This book is our contribution to that broader understanding.

Cyberspace: The Basis for the Comprehensive Digital Transformation of Our Society—An Introduction

Helmut Leopold

ABSTRACT

This chapter summarizes the history of the development of the internet and thus of cyberspace, providing clarification of the terms “cyberspace,” “information space” and “data space.” It also highlights important technical aspects and describes the main challenges our society faces as a consequence of the continuously evolving cyberspace.

1. Cyberspace—a World apart from any particular nation-state

The word “cyber” originally comes from the ancient Greek word “κυβερνήτης” (kybernitis),2 which describes the ability to steer a ship. (The word is still used today in Greek to describe the role of an administrative manager of a civilian area within a geographical territory). The term was adopted by philosophy and science to describe the behavior of complex systems, which both enables an emergent system behavior through feedback effects and provides a certain learning ability to a system. In his 1948 book Cybernetics, Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, the U.S. mathematician and philosopher Norbert Wiener described the relationship between human beings and the world as a cybernetic control loop,3 thus laying the theoretical foundations for the multidisciplinary field of cybernetics, the study of controlling the flow of information in systems with feedback loops, be they biological, mechanical, cognitive or social.

Details

Pages
280
Publication Year
2026
ISBN (PDF)
9783631948422
ISBN (ePUB)
9783631948439
ISBN (Hardcover)
9783631923634
DOI
10.3726/b23520
Language
English
Publication date
2026 (June)
Keywords
Asymmetric Cyber Hybrid Cognitive threats warfare protection critical infrastructure public sector future prospects and developments cloud computing artificial intelligence space economy military culture social behavior intelligence services
Published
Berlin, Bruxelles, Chennai, Lausanne, New York, Oxford, 2026. 280 pp., 3 fig. b/w, 3 tables.
Product Safety
Peter Lang Group AG

Biographical notes

Bianca Lins (Volume editor) Josef Schroefl (Volume editor)

Bianca Lins is a legal expert and head of the Space Department at the Liechtenstein Office for Communications. As an author, speaker, and mentor, she combines legal expertise with strategic vision to advance secure and sustainable use of outer space. Josef Schroefl is an Austrian officer and scientist. His research addresses asymmetric, cyber, hybrid, and cognitive threats, with a focus on the role of emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence in security and warfare.

Previous

Title: The Cyber and Information Space Matrix: A Conceptual Framework