Contributions of Psychology to the Operational Readiness of the Armed Forces: An International Perspective

Defense capability starts with people

When defense capabilities are the subject of discussion, the focus is often on systems, structures and technologies. They are visible and measurable. Yet the true foundation of military readiness lies deeper. It begins with people—with their judgment, their motivation, and their willingness to take on responsibility.

For me, this insight is closely linked to my own experiences in the area of motivation. As a young officer, I often found performance appraisals to be formal and one-sided: you reported to your superior, received a “satisfactory” or “unsatisfactory,” and then left. There was very little reflection, dialogue or any genuine assessment of your standing.

Later, in my role as Brigade commander, I consciously changed this approach. Commanders did not merely report for evaluation but reflected on their own performance beforehand. Joint discussions focused on openly identifying strengths and areas for improvement as well as taking responsibility for one’s own development. It was striking that, over several years, no unit rated itself higher than “satisfactory.”

This experience has had a lasting impact on my view of motivation: it does not arise from external attribution, but from honest self-assessment, dialogue and the willingness to be measured against one’s own high standards.

This particularly applies to the Swiss Armed Forces. As a militia armed forces, it relies on citizens who, in addition to their civilian commitments, take on leadership roles and make decisions under demanding conditions. The quality of assessment, the promotion of sustainable motivation, the systematic self-reflection of commanders and the strengthening of individual and organizational resilience are therefore structural prerequisites for credible defense capability.

Transforming anxiety into confidence: Resilience as a leadership task of the armed forces

In recent years, resilience has become a key concept when it comes to the operational readiness of modern armed forces. In the Swiss Armed Forces, this term is closely associated with the name of Dr. Hubert Annen. For many years he has seen to it that psychological approaches are made comprehensible and find their way into everyday leadership practice. His work has had a formative influence on officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers. It will continue to have an impact even after his retirement.

In our conversations, I was always impressed by the clarity with which Dr. Hubert Annen describes resilience. For him, it is about successfully dealing with challenges. When a military force is in combat, stress becomes unavoidable. Of decisive importance is how we react to it. Dr. Hubert Annen places the path from stimulus to response at the center of attention. It is precisely here where he begins his development work. Commanders often have to make decisions under time pressure and are exposed to the public spotlight while doing so. Those who react consciously in such moments and do not submit to initial impulses are acting with resilience.

An important element here is emotional control. Dr. Hubert Annen has emphasized for many years that emotions are not negative. They are part of being human and being a soldier. Crucial, however, is the ability to manage them. In Swiss Armed Forces radio communications, a ‘DDSS’ rule applies: Think. Press. Swallow. Speak. You do not react immediately. You pause for a moment. This brief moment of distance allows for a more conscious decision. Many commanders in such situations find that this very pause improves the quality of their response. This concept is now firmly embedded in the resilience training programs at military schools for officers. Many aspiring commanders benefit from it.

Dr. Hubert Annen, however, never viewed resilience merely as an individual ability. For him, it also emerges within organizations and cultures. His holistic model of Swiss military psychology clearly demonstrates this. It encompasses assessment, motivation, self-reflection and resilience. This model has long served as an important foundation for training at the Military Academy. It provides guidance. It shows that resilience is more than just a personal trait. It involves an interplay of attitude, culture and structure.

The armed forces are currently undergoing profound change. Geopolitically, a shift toward a new era has become reality. Technologies are developing at an exponential rate. Threats change depending on the time, circumstances, society and morals. New capabilities must be built up. Projects are becoming more demanding and complex. In such a high-pressure environment, mistakes are made. This is inevitable. The crucial question is, therefore, how we deal with such mistakes.

In organizations, a single mistake can often have long-lasting repercussions. Criticism sticks. People become identified with individual incidents of misperformance for extended periods. This behavior hinders development. It fosters hesitation. People avoid risks, not because they are unwilling, but because they fear the consequences. Such a culture stifles innovation. It weakens the ability to drive complex projects forward. It makes organizations less agile. This is precisely why an open error management culture is crucial. Such a culture clearly distinguishes between blame and responsibility. It views mistakes as a source of information. It makes it possible to provide feedback without jeopardizing relationships. It allows leaders to transparently state what did not work and, at the same time, to point out ways to do better next time.

In many conversations with Dr. Hubert Annen, I realized how important psychological safety is in this context. Trust, appreciation, integrity, empowerment and courage are not abstract values. They enable open conversations. They allow for criticism. They foster improvement. Only when people can speak up without fear is the foundation laid for a resilient organization.

I am convinced that one of the central tasks of military leadership is to transform anxiety into confidence. This idea has remained with me for a long time. In my conversations with Dr. Hubert Annen, it became clear to me how well he understands this concept. He showed me that confidence is not naive. It arises from experience, clarity and reflection. In difficult situations, all eyes turn to the leadership. There it is decided whether an organization remains capable of acting. Dr. Hubert Annen has always emphasized that personal resilience and organizational resilience are closely intertwined. Those who reflect on themselves also influence their environment.

Training at the Military Academy bears his hallmark, and for many years he was involved in the development of assessment centers for career officers, career non-commissioned officers, defense attachés, and general staff officers. In doing so, he helped ensure that key positions are carefully selected. He saw to it that psychological insights find their place in the selection process.

Many officers who hold positions of responsibility today were shaped by his methods and knowledge. His ability to explain complex concepts in simple and concrete terms has had a lasting impact on training in the Armed Forces.

Dr. Hubert Annen also had a strong international network. Research stays in the United States and the United Kingdom, as well as involvement on international panels of experts, have increased the visibility of Swiss military psychology. At the same time, he remained firmly anchored in the Swiss militia system. He ensured that international findings remain compatible with the realities of our militia. It is precisely this connection that makes his influence so valuable.

His career in the militia armed forces deserves special mention. Dr. Hubert Annen began as a young officer in the bicycle troops. Later, he took on various staff and command roles, rising to the rank of colonel. Most recently, he served on the specialist staff of the Armed Forces’ Psychological and Pedagogical Service. These experiences have helped shape his understanding of command and stress. He knows the militia armed forces not only from studies and lectures, but from direct experience. He knows what pressure feels like when conducting exercises. He knows how decisions in the field affect outcomes. He knows how militia personnel think and act. It is precisely for these reasons that his statements are so credible.

As Chief of the Armed Forces, it is important to me to honor not only the researcher and lecturer, but also the officer Annen. He embodies what makes the militia armed forces what it is. Citizens take on responsibility. They rise to challenges. They are committed to personal growth.

Dear Hubert, the Swiss Armed Forces owe you a great deal. Through your thinking, your commitment, and your example, you have shaped how we talk about resilience and how we live it. Resilience should not be viewed as an individual ability. It is a shared goal. It emerges in teams, in schools, in staffs and in exercises. You have shown us that challenges are not just burdens, but also opportunities. You have taught us how important confidence is. Your legacy will live on in training, in research and in daily service. Thank you very much for everything you have done for the security of our country.

An outlook on the Festschrift

With your holistic model of Swiss military psychology (Annen, 2014; 2024; Annen et al. 2017), you created an anchor point for scientific research and teaching in the military field. Your model (see Figure 1) will also form the thematic framework for the Festschrift.